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TEACHING MANUAL 

AND 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

A TEXTBOOK FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS 
AND COLLEGES 


BY 

IRA SAMUEL GRIFFITH 

Late Professor of Industrial Education 
University of Wisconsin 



The M anual Arts Press 

PEORIA, ILLINOIS 












\_3 
.Q-i . 


Copyright, 1920, 1924 
Ira Samuel Griffith 

32D52 


Printed in the United States of America 



t 


DEC 21’25 

©C1A872939 


PREFACE 


Teaching Manual and Industrial Arts is intended as a 
text for use in normal schools and in colleges. Its primary aim 
is to assist in the making of connections between the special 
work of apprentice or practice teaching and the more general 
courses in educational psychology and technic of teaching. 
The discussions in the main body of the text are intended 
to be practically helpful to manual and industrial arts teachers 
thru giving them a basis in science for their teaching practice. 

Before the method of presentation or chapter arrangement 
of a book such as this is determined, it is necessary to decide 
upon the class of readers it is expected to reach. An exam¬ 
ination of the field discloses the fact that there are two classes 
which need to be reached: one, consisting of those students 
in two-year manual and industrial arts courses who, because 
of the limited time for their training, have had no preliminary 
psychology; two, comprising upper classmen in four-year 
courses in normal schools and in colleges, who have had 
psychology. Another classification, equally valid, might be 
made: one, those who have not had teaching experience; and, 
two, those who have had experience. Combining we get: 

Type 1. Those who have had no psychology and no teaching 
experience. 

Type 2. Those who have had no psychology but have had 
teaching experience. 

Type 3. Those who have had psychology but no teaching 
experience. 

Type 4. Those who have had psychology and teaching ex¬ 
perience. 

Two methods of presentation are available: one, based upon 
unsupported statement of facts as the author conceives them— 
an empirical method; two, a method in which the author sup- 

iii 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


ports all statements in terms of commonly accepted scientific 
principles, such as are to be found in psychology. Both 
methods are legitimate; the first is appropriate when the stu¬ 
dent has no basis in psychology or in teaching experience for 
evaluating common teaching practice, with a consequent lack 
of feeling of need for evaluating teaching experience in terms 
of a commonly accepted basis. It is the method to use with 
Type 1, above. Once the student has had psychology or 
teaching experience, with a consequent feeling of need for 
evaluating teaching experience, the second method should be 
used. The chapter arrangement of the book is such that either 
of the above methods of presentation may be used. Students 
of Type 1, those with no psychology and no teaching experi¬ 
ence, will study the chapters just as they are arranged, 
beginning with Chapter I, but omitting the references to Figs. 
28 and 29 of Chapter XVI. This means that they are taking 
the author’s statements without attempts at verification in terms 
of the psychological basis developed in Chapter XVI. They 
may omit Chapter XVI. Those students who have had psychol¬ 
ogy or teaching experience, Types 2 and 3, will use a spiraling 
method in which they study the first fifteen chapters consecu¬ 
tively, beginning with Chapter I, omitting the references to 
Figs. 28 and 29, just as for Type 1. In addition to this, they 
will study Chapter XVI. Next they will re-read all of the 
preceding chapters, this time attending to all references to 
Chapter I, paying attention to all references to Figs. 28 and 29. 
For those who have had both psychology and teaching experi¬ 
ence, the following order is recommended: begin with Chapter 
XVI; then take in order the preceding chapters beginning with 
Chapter I, paying attention to all references to Figs. 28 and 29. 
Pedagogically, no subject has a right to presentation until a 
feeling of need has been created. It is for this reason that the 
introduction of the subject-matter of Chapter XVI has been 


IV 



PREFACE 


delayed for Types 2 and 3, and omitted entirely for Type 1. 
The method recommended for Type 4 is the most efficient, 
since it does not involve the extra labor of re-reading the book, 
as is necessary in the spiraling method of Types 2 and 3. The 
methods of Types 2, 3, and 4 are the only methods which 
accomplish the full purpose of the book; the method of Type 1 
is merely a preliminary experience, valuable for those for 
whom it is recommended, until they will have secured either 
teaching experience or a knowledge of psychology, after which 
they should follow the method of Types 2 and 3 or of 4. 

Teaching Manual and Industrial Arts hopes to be helpful, 
in the final analysis, thru the development of a science of 
teaching rather than thru unsupported statements of an em¬ 
pirical character. One who reads the chapters preceding 
Chapter XVI first and omits the references to Figs. 28 and 29 
must become aware that the assertions are being made ipse 
dixit, that is, without any attempt to support them by basic 
psychology. Indeed, the reader may find himself resenting 
certain assertions as not in accord with his own beliefs, in 
which case the author has failed of his purpose, which was 
to convince. Only as author and reader can get together on 
commonly accepted ground is there any hope for intelligent 
discussion. 

The author’s Correlated Courses* is an example of a book 
in which the method is one of unsupported statement. This 
book was written as a “first-aid” to the young teacher of wood¬ 
work and mechanical drawing. In it no attempt was made to 
do other than tell the young teacher just what to do and how 
to do it. It is, in fact, a log-book of the author’s own teaching 
experience. There is no attempt to justify the practice de¬ 
scribed therein. Such a method of treatment has its place; 

*Correlated Courses in Woodwork and Mechanical Drawing. The 
Manual Arts Press, 1912. 


v 




TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


it is the method usually followed in the two-year normal school 
courses—a method which emphasizes the mechanics or tricks 
of teaching, subject-matter and special devices. As a first-aid 
in preventing the young teacher from making serious mistakes 
while he is getting his first teaching experience, it is to be 
highly commended; as a method to be followed always, it has 
limitations. For example, the author of Correlated Courses 
received a letter from an instructor in which the instructor 
said, “My superintendent visited my class the other day and, 
after watching the work awhile, told me my practice was fifty 
years behind the times. In as much as I am following your 
Correlated Courses, will yo.u not tell me how you justify your 
practice?” Upon inquiry it developed that his class, after 
having had enough simple projects to have developed a feeling 
of need for an exercise preparatory to a large piece of furni¬ 
ture, was engaged in making such an exercise in the form of 
a mortise-and-tenon joint. The superintendent, having a super¬ 
ficial knowledge of the history of manual arts, immediately 
classed the instructor’s work as “Russian,” which system might, 
in round numbers, be called fifty years old. Altho the 
instructor’s practice was sound, he had no answer for the super¬ 
intendent’s criticism and the method of the book he was using 
gave him none. Tricks in methods of teaching, like tricks in 
mechanical trades, are perfectly satisfactory so long as no one 
questions their validity. When their validity is questioned, 
principles based upon commonly accepted science must be re¬ 
sorted to as a means of justification. Having made use of 
tricks until he can teach passably well, the instructor should 
familiarize himself with the science underlying the teaching 
of his subject. 

The fact that manual and industrial arts teachers deal with 
materials of resisting nature has made it possible for them to 
avoid certain confusions as to methods which have afflicted 
teachers of academic subjects. Witness the following: 



PREFACE 


A certain nationally known educator recently told a group 
of manual and industrial arts teachers that the practice of 
demonstrating and telling students how to make a project is 
vicious. When asked how he would present a lesson in prac¬ 
tical arts, he said, “I would certainly not tell or show for such 
a method is calculated to develop only a race of slaves—was in 
fact the method Plato advocated for that very purpose. In a 
democracy, initiative, originality, inventiveness should be the 
aim and the method such as will accomplish this. If,” he con¬ 
tinued, “the lesson were one of teaching a girl how to bake a 
cake, I would provide her with the equipment and ingredients 
and leave her to her own resources.” 

Needless to say, the manual and industrial arts teachers did 
not approve. However, they could not point out the fallacy 
in the advice of the expert nor could they find grounds for 
justifying their own practice other than experience. Only as 
we examine and test our practices in the light of basic psychol¬ 
ogy and pedagogy can we hope to correctly evaluate them or 
to convince others our practices are sound. 

Appendix I suggests a type of experience which may well 
be extended by additional lessons. It provides opportunity for 
attention to what may be called the mechanics of teaching, 
attention to details of subject-matter and to devices. A reason¬ 
able requirement of a student engaged in such work might well 
be that of analysis and classification of teachable content, its 
selection in terms of functional needs of the group, and its 
arrangement into the larger groups or blocks for effective 
instruction. However, it has seemed best to postpone this to 
a later course, one in Organization and Administration, thus 
allowing him time to concentrate in this present course upon 
the problems of methods of teaching and daily lesson plans, 
with only such organization and administration problems as 

vii 



TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


have to do with the successful presentation of the lesson, such, 
for example, as sequence of operations in a given problem or 
job, materials and tools immediately necessary as a part of the 
work of the given lesson. In the working out of daily lesson 
plans, the general outline for which has been worked out 
by a supervisor, to be given to the student-teacher, there will 
be provided a better preparation for the organization problem 
in the large in this later course than otherwise would be. The 
present course provides all the information needed for the 
practice teaching that the student-teacher will be called upon to 
do. Practice teaching must be based upon a supervisor’s 
course outline rather than the student-teacher’s, if the work 
of the pupils is to be well ordered and progressive. Later, the 
student-teacher may be taught to think of the supervisor’s 
outline in terms of his own planning. 

Acknowledgments are due Dr. W. W. Charters, Director 
of Educational Research, Carnegie School of Technology, for 
valuable criticism and suggestions as to the general form and 
content of the text; to my wife for encouragement and sug¬ 
gestions ; also, to Miss Ella V. Dobbs, Assistant Professor of 
Manual Arts, University of Missouri, for permission to use 
certain photographic illustrations pertaining to elementary 
handwork. Other acknowledgments will be found in the main 
text in connection with materials used. I. S. G. 


Vlll 





CONTENTS 


Preface.iii 

Chapter I. The Place of Manual and Industrial Arts in the 

Field of General Education.9 

1. Terminology; 2. Objectives in general education; 3. 

The place of manual and industrial arts; Psychological and 
sociological factors; 4. Objectives for the elementary school; 

5. Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 


Chapter II. Classification and Differentiation of the Manual 

Arts .27 

1. Classification and differentiation of the manual arts; 2. 
Technical manual arts; 3. Expressional manual arts; 4. Re¬ 
lation of expressional to technical manual arts; 5. Harmoni¬ 
zation of conflicting aims; 6. Summary. Reference reading. 

Class discussion. 

Chapter III. Industrial Arts .47 

1. Introduction; 2. Three types of reactive need in industrial 
arts education; types evaluated; 3. Basis of awards in in¬ 
dustry; 4. Industrial education must provide opportunity for 
individual specialization along any one of these three types 
of reaction; 5. Fundamental principles of teaching applicable 
to industrial arts; 6. Effect of emphasizing efficiency in exe¬ 
cution, or skill, in industrial arts education; 7. Industrial arts 
education and cultural values; 8. Dangers to be avoided; 9. 
Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 

Chapter IV. Instincts and Capacities .63 

1. Instincts and capacities; 2. The law of association as it 
applies to the' utilization of instincts; 3. Instincts need con¬ 
trol; 4. Means used to control connections between instinct- 
tive and more remote connections; 5. Conflict of aims in 
utilizing instincts; 6. Effect of delayed capacities; 7. The 
teacher’s problem; 8. Summary. Reference reading. Class 
discussion. 


5 







6 


CONTENTS 


Chapter V. Application of the Principle of Apperception to 

Manual and Industrial Arts Teaching.75 

1. Apperception; 2. The learning process; 3. The law of as¬ 
sociation applicable to the learning process; 4. Some seem¬ 
ing violations of the principle of apperception; 5. Logical 
sequence; 6. Drill or frequency as an essential factor in 
assimilation; 7. Summary. Reference reading. Class dis¬ 
cussion. 

Chapter VI. Interest and Attention.85 

1. Interest and attention the indispensable basis of every 
method of education; 2. The law of association applied to 
interest and attention; 3. Feeling of zest versus effort; 4. 
Mental assimilation a matter of consciousness; 5. Abstract 
exercises versus useful projects; 6. Drill and feeling of zest; 

7. Logical arrangement of subject-matter versus psychological 
development of the individual; 8. Summary. Reference read¬ 
ing. Class discussion. 

Chapter VII. Individual Differences; The Group System . 96 

1. The law of probability; 2. Practical significance of indi¬ 
vidual differences; 3. The group system; 4. The group sys¬ 
tem applied to the manual and industrial arts; 5. Grouping 
for classification and grading; 6. Grouping for developing 
initiative; 7. Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 

Chapter VIII. Correlation and Association.115 

1. Correlation; 2. Correlation another name for association; 

3. Two types of correlation; 4. Advantages and limitations 
in immediate correlations; 5. Conflicting aims; 6. Practical 
difficulties and aids in correlation; 7. Summary. Reference 
reading. Class discussion. 

Chapter IX. The Doctrine of Discipline. 124 

1. The problem of discipline stated; 2. Early revised view; 

3. The present view of generalized and specialized training; 

4. Effect of present view of discipline upon subject-matter 
and method—logical basis; 5. Modification of choice of sub¬ 
ject-matter due to child nature—psychological basis; 6 . 
Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 







CONTENTS 


7 


Chapter X. Types of Thinking Inherent in the Manual Arts 136 
1. Introduction; 2. Three types of thinking; 3. Evaluation of 
types of thinking; 4. Instruction on the lower plane and the 
higher plane—storage of knowledge and acquisition of me¬ 
chanical skill; 5. The danger in extreme emphasis upon man¬ 
ual and industrial arts as a means of developing so-called 
generalized habits of reaction—the necessity of associative 
thinking as a preliminary to selective thinking; 6. The dan¬ 
ger of extreme emphasis upon associative thinking to the 
neglect of selective; 7. Harmonization of conflicting aims 
in associative and selective thinking; 8. Modification in prac¬ 
tice due to variation in aims; 9. Summary. Reference read¬ 
ing. Class discussion. 

Chapter XI. Teaching Methods in Manual and Industrial 

Arts.153 

1. Teaching methods; 2. The deductive or imitative method; 

3 The inductive or heuristic method; 4. The complete 
method; 5. Modification in method due to variation in aims; 

6. Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 

Chapter XII. The Lesson; Its Component Parts . . . .162 

1. The necessity for carefully matured plans; 2. The six 
formal steps; 3. The six formal steps not always inductive; 

4. Not every lesson needs to be inductive; 5. Modern con¬ 
ception of method; 6. Instructive question rather than direc¬ 
tive statement; 7. Intermediate plan form; 8. Daily lesson 
plan; 9. Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 

Chapter XIII. Class Management; Discipline .176 

1. Maintaining order or discipline a matter of instinct as 
well as of training; 2. Successful discipline, to a large de¬ 
gree, the result of thoughtful management; 3. The law of 
association applicable to control of conduct; 4. General causes 
for an unruly school; 5. Specific problems of control; 6. 
Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 

Chapter XIV. Standards and Tests. 183 

1. Teacher standards; 2. Standards of pupil accomplishment 
in manual arts by grades; 3. Specific standards and tests; 





8 


CONTENTS 


4. Standards for form and technic; 5. Tests for form and 
technic; 6. Standards and tests for skill in execution; 7. 
Illustrating a method of attack in establishing pupil stand¬ 
ards for accuracy in execution in a given specific project; 

8. Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 

Chapter XV. Conditions Which Make for Progress . . . 200 

1. Conflicting aims in education; 2. Manual and industrial 
arts an attempt to provide a better balance between the 
abstract and the concrete in education—between theory and 
practice; 3. Need for a scientific treatment of subject-matter; 

4. Limitations which arise from undue emphasis upon theory 
or science; 5. The place of texts; 6. Race progress demands 
that a balance be maintained between conflicting aims; 7. 
Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 

Chapter XVI. Basic Psychology .213 

1. Connections in the nervous system of man; 2. Instinct, 
intelligence, habit; 3. Impression, sensation, feeling of rela¬ 
tionships, emotion, will; 4. Monism; dualism; 5. Significance 
of connections in the nervous system of man in determining 
certain aims in education; 6. Connections a basis for method; 

7. Social, economic and other factors influence aims and prac¬ 
tices; 8. Summary. Reference reading. Class discussion. 

Appendix I, Special Method Procedure .243 

1. Special method aims; Directions for observation; type 
lessons. 


Appendix II. Type Outlines 


251 







CHAPTER I 

THE PLACE OF MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN THE FIELD OF 
GENERAL EDUCATION 

1. Terminology. At the present writing there is not a 
complete agreement among authorities as to the exact meanings 
to be attached to the terms in common use in the field of manual 
and industrial arts. For the purposes of this book the fol¬ 
lowing are recommended: Vocational education, that type of 
education which emphasizes specific preparation for direct par¬ 
ticipation in occupations of social value. 1 Industrial education, 
those forms of vocational education the direct purpose of 
which is to fit for some specific industrial pursuit or trade. 2 
Industrial arts, those forms of training and study based upon 
industrial pursuits designed to enhance the general intelligence 
and appreciation of the field of industrial occupations. 2 Manual 
arts, manual training, art crafts, those forms of training and 
study, selected from industrial pursuits, best calculated to 
afford boys and girls a fundamental means of natural develop¬ 
ment of socially and individually desirable qualities. Applied 
arts, such craft work as may be needed to provide a feeling 
of need for, and a means of clarifying and fixing art instruc¬ 
tion. Vocational enlightenment, vocational guidance, vocational 
placement include all systematic efforts, under private or public 
control, and excluding traditional activities of the home, the 
conscious and chief purpose of which is to secure the most 
economical and effective adjustment of young people to the 
economic employments which they can most advantageously 
follow. 2 

‘Hill, D. S., Introduction to Vocational Education, Macmillan Co., 
1920, p. 34. 

2 Report of Committee on Vocational Education, N. E. A., U. S. 
Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 21, 1916. 


9 



10 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


It should not be understood that the fields enumerated above 
have sharp boundary lines; they merely represent central tend¬ 
encies or interests or objectives. For example, manual arts 
may and should attend to certain art principles found largely 
in applied arts. Industrial arts grow out of manual arts and 
manual arts may and should possess the beginnings of indus- 



Fig. 1.—Vocational Ascent of Manual and Industrial 
Arts. Popular Terminology. 


trial arts, as the terms are defined above. Industrial arts have 
in them the beginnings of serious trade or industrial vocational 
education. Vocational enlightenment may be found in all the 
types mentioned or it may become a subject experience in itself. 
Fig. 1 illustrates the relationships of the more common fields 
and their vocational ascent, in terms of popular acceptance of 
terminology. The chart presupposes that vocational education 
will begin after the high school period. With high school ad¬ 
ministrators fully awake to the significance of the changing 
character of the high school student body, reorganization of 
the high school curriculums should make it possible for the high 
school boy or girl, going into industry at the close of the high 
school period, to begin specialization looking toward vocational 

































PLACE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 


11 


pursuits in the third and fourth years of high school work. 
The statement is made that high schools of today have one 
child in three of high school age as compared with one in ten 
some twenty years ago, and one in thirty some fifty years ago. 
This means that the traditional offering of high school subjects 
and the traditional treatment is hardly sufficient for all high 
school students of today in as much as the traditional offering 
was intended for prospective college students with classical 
bent. 


2. Objectives in General Education. Only in very re¬ 
cent years have school administrators in the United States given 
serious thought concerning educational aims. Earlier objec¬ 
tives in this country were inherited from the leisure class 
schools of England and were continued in our public schools 
without much thought as to comparative values until recent 
times. 

Of the more recent studies, the author has found a most 
stimulating and suggestive one in the Report of the Organizing 
and Advisory Committee, University of Illinois High School 
Conference for 1919. 1 The chart, Fig. 2, represents the author’s 
conception of the major objectives in general education and 
the agencies or means for accomplishing the same. In this 
chart he has made use of the major objectives suggested by 
Prof. Alexander Inglis in his Principles of Secondary Educa¬ 
tion, Chapter X, which objectives seem more fitting than those 
proposed by the committee; the secondary objectives are those 
recommended by the committee except that the word “beauty” 
has been interpreted broadly as beauty of character or as 
culture. Certain changes as to agencies have been made and 
the charting has been modified to apply to the whole educa- 

1 Proceedings of the High School Conference of Nov. 20, 21, 22, 1919, 
University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. XVII, No. 13. 





12 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 




Cultivated 0 ^ Efficient 

ADULTHOOD 




SOCIAL-CIVIC 

Nappy and Efficient 
Member of Nation, State 
Community, Church, Local 
Society and Nome 


1 


VOCATIONAL 



C0UR5E5 



INDIVIDUALISTIC - AVOCATlONAl 
« HUMANISTIC 
Happy, and Efficient 
Personality thru Worthy 
Use of Leisure 


^ WEACTm" 

Thru: appreciation atti¬ 
tudes. ideals, knowledge, 
habits, and skills 
INDUSTRIAL EFFICIENCY 


ASSOCIATION ^ 
Thru: appreciation, atti¬ 
tudes, ideals knowledoc 
habits, and skills 
UN5QJI5H BIGHTEOUSNCS.i 



The Funddmenlal FVo- 
cesses thru Directed 
play experiences - 


CHILDHOOD 


CULTURE 

Thru: appreciation atti¬ 
tudes, ideals, knowledge, 
habits, and skills 
NOBLER ENJOYMENT 


Play 


Industrial and 
other applied arts 


Manual arts 


Painting 

Drawing 

Art-crafts 

1 


. 1 


Physiology 


Vocational 

enlightenment 


Athletics and 
Clubs 


Music, Aesthetic 
dancing, Literature, 
and Drama 

1 

i 

rm 

1 

Hygiene 


Economic history 


School spirit 


Speculative 


and theory 


Loyalty 


philosophy 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Correction of 
defects 


Applied sciences 
ana mathematics 


Student control 


Speculative or 
pure science and 
mathematics 

1 

1 


1 . 

Athletics and 
gymnastics 


Home mechanics 


M istory, Literature, 
and Social sciences 


Foreign languages 

r 

1 

1 

1 

Health habits 


Thrift teaching 


Social 

environment 


School and home 
environment 



Fig. 2.—Chart Representing Major Objectives in 
Education and Means for Their 
Accomplishment. 
































































































PLACE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 


13 


tional experience of an individual. By permission certain 
extracts from the committee report are reproduced. 

“The fundamental essentials of human well-being are four: 
Health, Wealth, Association, and Beauty (culture). Pro¬ 
fessor Albion Small in his General Sociology, laid down six 
fundamental human interests: Health, wealth, sociability, 
beauty, knowledge, and righteousness. But your committee be¬ 
lieves that knowledge should be considered as a means to an 
end and not as an end in itself. Knowledge is a means of 
attaining health, wealth, association, and beauty (culture). 
We believe that righteousness, or right relations among men, 
is also best regarded as a means. It is the means of attaining 
association. By teaching ethics as right relations, a means of 
attaining what all desire—mainly, friendship, social efficiency, 
membership in organizations—we can give ethical teaching a 
significance and power not attainable thru abstract conceptions 
of duty. * * * Education should impart not knowledge 

alone, which has been our fetish in the past, but appreciation, 
habits and skill as well. It leads up thru the various activities 
and subjects of instruction to the four objectives. Above the 
four objectives are the main life interests which these objec¬ 
tives support.” 

To read the chart, Fig. 2, begin at the bottom. First we have 
the child, ages one to six years, in a period of uncontrolled 
play. At six he enters school and his play is directed toward 
the development of certain elementary appreciations, attitudes, 
ideals, knowledge, habits, skills socially and individually useful, 
including the fundamental processes of reading, writing, spell¬ 
ing, and arithmetic. This period usually extends from ages 
six to twelve. From twelve to fourteen we must still make 
use of the play impulse but the preliminary experiences have, 
or should have developed a feeling of need for more serious 
experiences of an instructional nature—pro-vocational, let us 



14 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


call it, that is, experiences looking toward a vocational interest 
if not vocational choice. From fourteen to seventeen we should 
have the pupil choosing, at least tentatively, a vocation in which 
knowledge, habits, and skill are seriously sought thru serious 
instructional directions or controls. At nineteen the boy should 
have an opportunity for vocational experience under conditions 
not unlike those in real life. 

The fundamental conception of method is that of educating 
thru setting situations calculated to produce desired experiences. 
For this reason appreciations, attitudes, ideals, knowledge, 
habits, skills are ends only relatively; in the final analysis they 
are psychological means to sociological and psychological ends. 

Administratively, it is not considered necessary to separate 
into vocational or pro-vocational and non-vocational groups. A 
boy, for example, who expects to become an electrical engineer 
would take advanced mathematics and science in high school 
preparatory to meeting college entrance requirements. For 
such a one the work would be vocational or pre-vocational. 
On the other hand, a girl who never expected to use advanced 
mathematics vocationally might elect such a subject; for her 
the subject would be for individualistic-avocational ends. In 
a similar manner a boy may take shopwork in order to better 
appreciate what it means to manipulate materials according to 
conventional trade methods tho he may never expect to make 
his living by manipulative work. He may take such work in 
classes made up largely of vocational or pro-vocational 
students; the experience is all the more valuable. For him the 
experience has for its objective the association or social-civic 
end. 

“The first objective is health. Everyone wants it, yet few 
have appreciation, knowledge, habits, and skill to attain it. Its 
attainment should give us a more splendid manhood and wom¬ 
anhood, eventuating in economic life as happy and efficient 



PLACE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 


15 


workers, in political life as happy and efficient citizens of nation 
and state and community, and in social life as happy and 
efficient members of family, church and local society. The 
Greeks made health an objective in education. As a result they 
attained to a perfection of physique and carriage such as the 
world has never seen. Health has not been an objective in our 
schools. In 1914 and 1915, the year when the Great War 
broke out, New York City expended in the promotion of health 
in the high schools, less than .1 of 1% of the 44 millions raised 
for educational purposes. * * * In 1914 and 1915 algebra 
and geometry were taught to 75% of the boys and girls in high 
schools, while hygiene and physiology were taught to less than 
10%. Physical training was not considered of sufficient impor¬ 
tance to be noted in the statistics of the Bureau of Education 
for that year. * * * 

“The second essential for human well-being is wealth. The 
term wealth is not here used to imply great riches. It is used 
in the economic sense to signify command of economic goods. 
In this sense ‘the peasant’s hut is as much wealth as the prince’s 
palace.’ Considered in the economic sense, the term wealth 
should have no odium attached to it. The desire for wealth is 
legitimate and universal. Plato, the philosopher, wished to 
grow rich honestly. Even teachers have been known to aban¬ 
don an opportunity for service in one community, taking a 
position in another because the latter gave greater returns of 
wealth, more economic power over the boardbills, room rent 
and other expense. 

“Ratzenhofer called ‘work’ one of the great interests of life. 
But Small improved upon this by substituting the word 
‘wealth.’ ‘Work,’ ‘vocation,’ ‘economic efficiency’ are all 
terms which apply to the means of attaining the economic 
essential of well-being. Wealth is that important essential. 
By whatever term we call it, there is no question that economic 




16 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


satisfaction is, and long has been, an object in education. And 
the educated world has been fairly successful in attaining the 
objective. Bulletin No. 22 of the Bureau of Education on ‘The 
Money Value of Education,’ makes clear that nations which 
have the least illiteracy have the greatest wealth and earning 
capacity. The same applies to the states of these United States 
and to groups of individuals. Education promotes wealth. 
* * * 

“The third objective is association. Just as we rejected the 
terms ‘work,’ ‘vocation,’ or ‘vocational efficiency’ because 
these are better regarded as means, not as ends, so the much- 
used terms, ‘social efficiency’ and ‘larger group conscious¬ 
ness,’ are really means of attaining the major objective, asso¬ 
ciation. Thru appreciation, knowledge, habits and skill in social 
matters man may enter into right relations with one another 
whereby happiness and efficiency may be promoted in all de¬ 
partments of life. The attainment of this goal involves team¬ 
work, the sinking of self for the good of the group, playing 
the game like a good sport with honesty, truth, justice and the 
square deal; with good cheer, courtesy and modesty; with 
courage, and obedience to the law and to rightful authority; 
with appreciation of men and with appreciation of the social 
character of modern industry that makes of the humblest task 
a joyful service to others. All this is involved in the third 
objective. Our environment consists of human beings as well 
as material things; and much the most difficult element to 
which we must adjust ourselves in the environment is the 
human element. Natural science gives us the adjustment' to 
material things; social science must teach us the adjustment 
to one another. * * * 

“The fourth and last objective is beauty (culture). We 
believe that art should touch with its refining power the lives 
of more men and women in America. Art can furnish satis- 



PLACE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 


17 


factions when material wealth fails. The poor may still enjoy 
their music; the love of the beautiful may still be satisfied 
without large expenditure in these days of free public libraries, 
parks and art museums. To be something of an artist oneself 
is to have an unfailing source of happiness and refinement. 
Without the refinements of the beautiful, material wealth be¬ 
comes blatant and disgusting, and fails to minister to the 
happiness of the rich. A sense of the beautiful in the laborer 
adds value to the products of labor; in political life it builds 
the city beautiful; in social life it decorates, enriches, enobles 
all association. Thus beauty is found worthy of its place as 
the fourth and last educational objective.” 

All the committee has said about beauty as an objective is to 
be heartily commended; however, it seems advisable to enlarge 
the conception of beauty until it encompasses culture or 
beauty of character such as comes so peculiarly thru the worthy 
use of leisure. If this is done we may include speculative 
philosophy, religion, pure sciences, pure mathematics, and 
foreign languages as agencies. If the humanitarians or 
academicians have been in error in demanding sole attention to 
this particular educational objective—education for leisure, 
vocational education enthusiasts will not better the situation by 
seeking its entire elimination. The following example from a 
metropolitan daily well illustrates what is meant by the worthy 
use of leisure: 

Prof. A. A. Michelson, the eminent scientist, was asked 
his means of relaxation. “Well,” he replied. “I have 
quite a number—tennis, billiards, chess—tho there is not much 
relaxation for me in that—and painting, and I go out sketching 
a good deal. And I play the violin—not so very well. I do 
a great deal of reading in Spanish, and I have taken up Italian. 
I take it for insomnia. Nothing else works like Italian gram¬ 
mar, and when I get to irregular verbs I drop off to sleep.” 



18 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


The enthusiast for Italian might object to Prof. Michelson’s 
treatment of his particular subject; language enthusiasts expect 
their subjects to be taken for cultural or for vocational ends; 
Prof. Michelson is here using Italian for health ends—which 
is perfectly legitimate if not complimentary. 

“In separating these objectives on the chart the committee 
would not have it thought that they are not related. Each 
aids the other. Each is promoted by means of the other. Con¬ 
sider how beauty and health are related. It has been found 
in the case of shell-shocked men that music is the best and 
almost the only means of effecting a cure. Good cheer, which 
promotes association among men, contributes also to health. 
Wealth is closely related to association, success in the one 
resulting often in realization of the other. 

“Just as the major objectives of education are seen to be 
related, so studies now in the curriculum may be seen to relate 
each to more than one objective. History is behind every one 
of them. The languages and mathematics have a place. Art 
can be put to work to attain every objective. Consider what 
the artistic war posters did in educating the people. ‘Let me 
write the songs of a nation/ says the sage, ‘and I care not 
who writes its laws/ A poet, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 
once taught England a great lesson in economics. Her poem, 
‘The Cry of the Children/ helped abolish their twelve and 
fourteen hour shifts by night and day in mines and factories. 

“The sciences, including mathematics, have brought greater 
returns to industry and vastly increased wealth. Science has 
explored the sources of disease and found means of saving 
life and promoting health; by bettering the means of intercom¬ 
munication it has promoted association so rapidly that man’s 
ethical character has lagged far behind the needs of this widen¬ 
ing association. Science has even invaded the domains of art 
and given us the possibilities of Caruso’s voice in every home 



PLACE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 


19 


and Mary Pickford’s acting in the little theatre of the smallest 
town. 

“With these four objectives, health, wealth, association, and 
beauty (culture), before us, we have a means of determin¬ 
ing ‘what studies are of most worth.’ It will be found that 
those are most beneficial in education which make the largest 
contribution in promoting the four objectives. That material 
which serves these four great interests best must be retained; 
that which serves them least may be soonest abandoned. The 
first effort toward curriculum reconstruction might well consist 
of a consideration of the actual contribution of each study in 
terms of the ultimate objectives, the four fundamental essen¬ 
tials of human well-being. If to attain these essentials of 
well-being, the regular curriculum needs immediate supple¬ 
menting, supplementary material may be introduced into 
courses wide and general in character such as history, civics, 
literature, and English composition and into extra curricular 
activities, clubs, and general assembly exercises.” 

3. The Place of Manual and Industrial Arts; Psycholog¬ 
ical and Sociological Factors. In Fig. 2 the author has 
attempted to express his conception of the place of manual and 
industrial arts, art-crafts, and vocational education. The chart 
is self-explanatory. The first two, economic-vocational and 
social-civic, are sociological; the third, individualistic-avoca- 
tional is psychological. In this day of highly specialized and 
often degrading industrial occupational specialties, such as 
putting a single nut upon a piece of automobile mechanism, or 
wrapping candies by hand, it seems advisable to call attention 
to the fact that avocational training is often more important 
than vocational. 

In the chart, Fig. 2, the foundational or cultural agencies 
have been charted as a preliminary to the functional or voca¬ 
tional. It was suggested that the vocational would best begin 




20 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


in the third and fourth years of the high school. It should 
not be inferred from this that any other arrangement is bad. 
The whole scheme of part-time education is based upon the 
fact that vocational experience and cultural education may be 
carried on side by side in close alternating intervals. Fig. 14a 
and 14b chart the first and full time organization; Fig. 14c and 
14d chart the part-time; in either case the individual may 
acquire “the widening of vision, the deepening of general 
understanding, the actualizing of one’s potential powers, the 
full-orbed expression and maintenance of the personality, the 
harnessing-up of native interests, the development of enthu¬ 
siasms and ideals; or briefly, the full humanization of the indi¬ 
vidual”—the psychological ends devoutly sought by the culture 
people, as well as the sociological ends demanded by the 
practical minded, namely, “the performance of responsible 
duties capably and efficiently; the acquiring of technical ac¬ 
curacy, habits of dependableness, industry, persistence, skill, 
practical knowledge, physical and moral fibre, and adherence 
to duty whether it be pleasant or painful; which results are 
to be achieved thru education of the practical work type.” 1 

We may think of the life experience of an individual as 
made up of levels; first let us think of three levels, then of two 
intermediate levels, making five in all. The first level we may 
call the play level; the third the instruction level; the fifth we 
may designate as the work level. Midway between the first 
and third we have the play-instruction level; while between 
the third and fifth we have the instruction-work level. The 
play level is normally found at ages 1 to 6; the play-instruction 
level at ages 6 to 12; the instruction level at ages 12 to 16; the 
instruction-work level at ages 16 to 18; the work level at ages 
18 and on. Stating it another way, the play level is for little 
folks before formal instruction of school has begun; the play- 


1 Bobbitt, F., The Curriculum, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1918, pp. 6, 7. 




PLACE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 


21 


instruction level is for primary and intermediate grades; the 
instruction period is for upper grammar and lower high school 
grades, a period of development when a feeling of need for 
instruction in conventional methods of procedure should appear 
if the previous experiences have been properly set; the instruc¬ 
tion-work level is for the last two years of high school and 
should be characterized by the introduction of factory or pro¬ 
duction methods either for trade skill or as a laboratory for 
teaching industrial management or both; level five, the work 
level, is reserved for emphasis upon actual production expe¬ 
rience in real industrial situations. Manual arts, as we have 
defined the term, encompasses levels two and three; industrial 
arts encompasses level four; level five should be a cooperative 
enterprise between school and industry without age limit, adult 
education. The determining factor in the discussion of the 
relative order of the psychological or humanizing or founda¬ 
tional versus the sociological or vocational or functional is 
largely one of administrative limitations. Psychological or 
cultural or humanizing ends, as has been stated, may be at¬ 
tained with a minimum of diversity of practical subject-matter 
and method, and hence of equipment; sociological ends demand 
wide diversity and on a real work-level basis. Part-time pupils 
get the work-level experience in industry so that part-time 
schools need provide chiefly the humanizing element. In the 
full time school it has not been found possible to provide, ex¬ 
cept in the case of relatively few trades, work-level experiences 
of real worth. For this reason it seems inadvisable to attempt to 
justify full time school experiences as largely on a work-level 
basis. This confession should in no way militate against shop 
work now being done in schools; it merely calls attention to 
the fact that justifications for school shop experiences are to 
be found in ideals and attitudes more generally than in specific 
vocational subject-matter and methods. Ideals and attitudes 



22 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


are to be developed thru specific subject-matter, methods and 
experiences, and we are to strive to select subject-matter and 
methods most likely to function in after life vocational experi¬ 
ences, other things being equal; failing in this, our work still 
is greatly to be valued for the reasons just named. The levels 
may be arranged in sequence as in Chart 2 or in parallel as in 
the part-time school, or in close alternation to give a spiral 
organization. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. 

4. Objectives for the Elementary School. Two extreme 
points of view may be assumed in the process of setting objec¬ 
tives. One, illustrated in the work of the committee report 
above, attacks the problem in terms of a logical analysis of 
what the adult thinks the child should accomplish in the process 
of education in order for him to become what society would 
like to have him become. The other, in the extreme form, con¬ 
siders the nature of the child and is confident that if children 
are taught to do better those things which children normally 
like to do, all the graces the adult admires and desires in the 
child as an adult will follow as a matter of course. A third 
point of view, the view assumed in this text, considers childish 
interests, but at the same time also has in mind those forms 
of behavior he must acquire in due time if he is to live happily 
and well among his fellows. This view takes children as it 
finds them and strives to so set situations that native interest 
may be caused to attach itself to the more remote forms of 
behavior society would have, just as rapidly as this can be done, 
without violence to the nature of the child. The test for the 
legitimacy of every educational situation is whether or not the 
child has, or can be got to have a feeling of need for the expe¬ 
rience without violence and undue strain or the exercise of 
external authority. Once this situation obtains, there is nothing 
unethical in the fact that society rather than the child initiated 
the educational experience, sets the objective. To do otherwise 



PLACE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 


23 


is to concede the wisdom of children equal to that of the social 
order itself. If this third point of view is accepted, it follows 
that for young children emphasis must be placed upon native 
interests with considerations of objectives from the adult stand¬ 
point as secondary; for adults, the reverse is true; for pupils 
in upper grammar grades and early high school, attention will 
be balanced between native interest and demands of society. 
As has been stated, the objectives for the high school formu¬ 
lated above are formulated, first, in terms of what society 
demands, with the implication that native interests will be 
considered in the selection of methods of teaching. While 
native interests control methods in the elementary schools, 
society even here has set objectives; these are what are com¬ 
monly called the fundamental processes; in lowest terms, read¬ 
ing, writing, and arithmetic. The chart, Fig. 2, should suggest 
to the elementary school administrator that knowledge, habits, 
skills, appreciations are all means, not ends, and that the funda¬ 
mental processes, which are, relatively, also means, might be 
more readily acquired if experiences thru which they operate 
were more in accord with the native interests and capacities 
of children than they usually are in the traditional type of 
school. “We are accustomed to look for school products in 
terms of three-R information and skill. * * * These com¬ 

mon branches would be more effectively studied if treated as 
incidental to the study of problems of real life. * * * It is 
here insisted that a knowledge of arithmetic is futile except 
as it functions in real situations. This is equally true with 
regard to other school subjects. Observation is presented in 
this chapter as a study where the traditions subjects do play a 
part, but always a subordinate part.” 1 Manual arts in the ele¬ 
mentary school is adequately justified as an agency or means 


1 Child Life and the Curriculum, Meriam, J. L., World Book Co., 
1920. 






24 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


for natural development, according to Dr. Meriam. The fol¬ 
lowing chapter presents other justifications. 

5. Summary. Manual and industrial arts belong pri¬ 
marily in the field of general education. The beginnings of 
vocational education may present themselves but are secondary. 
The development of ideals and attitudes as means to certain 
sociological ends is primary as compared to acquaintance with 
specific subject-matter and methods values. 

Vocational education must, in order to be vocational, attend 
to specific subject-matter and methods; it can and should also 
attend to the development of proper ideals and attitude. Ideals 
and attitudes are developed most effectively in connection with 
specific subject-matter and methods experience. 

At present there is not complete agreement as to the mean¬ 
ings to be attached to many of the terms now used in the field 
of manual and industrial arts. In the main the terminology 
used in this book follows that recommended by the Committee 
on Vocational Education of the National Education Associa¬ 
tion, Bulletin No. 21, 1916, U. S. Bureau of Education. 

Ideals and attitudes have been called ends; it will be more 
in keeping with present day tendencies in education to consider 
them as psychological means to certain sociological and psycho¬ 
logical ends. These ends are (1) a happy and efficient worker, 
(2) a happy and efficient member of nation, state, community, 
church, and local society, (3) a happy and efficient personality, 
representing respectively economic-vocational, social-civic, indi- 
vidualistic-avocational or humanistic ends. More specific than 
the three objectives just mentioned are four subordinate objec¬ 
tives, namely, health, wealth, association, and culture. In 
the high school these objectives are to be accomplished thru 
subject-matter experiences such as student practices in hygiene, 
vocational work, history, literature, industrial arts, etc. The 



PLACE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 


25 


means in each case are appreciation, knowledge, habits, skill, 
including of course ideals, attitudes, desires. 

Objectives and means in the elementary school are not the 
same as for the high school but the traditional elementary 
school may learn some things from the high school chart. While 
health, wealth, association, and culture are objectives fur¬ 
ther removed for the elementary pupil than for the high 
school, they should be considered. As in the high school, 
appreciation, knowledge, habits, and skill are to be considered 
as means; likewise reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic. 
It should be recognized that such objectives are from the stand¬ 
point of the adult; that child nature must be considered in any 
adequate setting of the problem educationally. To neglect in¬ 
terest and capacity is to defeat the end in view thru the devel¬ 
opment of excessive effort and strain. Manual arts in ele¬ 
mentary schools probably finds its chief justification as an aid 
in the natural development of the young. In the upper grades 
and in the high school it becomes a means of developing certain 
ideals and attitudes as well as avocational interests. In later 
high school it should take on vocational significance, manipula¬ 
tive, managerial, or professional. 

Reference Reading: 

Bobbitt, Franklin, The Curriculum. 

Bobbitt, Franklin, Curriculum Construction in Los Angeles. 

University of Illinois Bulletin No. 13, Vol. XVII, Proceedings of 
the High School Conference, pp. 25-34. 

Inglis, Alexander, Principles of Secondary Education, Chapter X. 

U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 35, 1918, Cardinal Principles 
of Education. 

U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 21, 1916, National Educa¬ 
tion Association Report on Vocational Education, pp. 33, 36, 
42-49. 

Meriam, Junius L., Child Life and the Curriculum, especially 
Chapters V, XIII, XVI. 

Class Discussion: 

1. What is the major purpose of the present study? Cf. preface. 

2. Enumerate the author’s classification of possible readers of the 
text, and discuss the three methods of procedure proposed. What 




26 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


is the difference between an empirical and a scientific method of 
presentation of subject-matter? 

3. Differentiate general education from specific. 

4. May there ever be any specific educational values in manual and 
industrial arts for general educational purposes? Under what 
conditions? May there be general values in specific or voca- 
tional educational practice? Explain. 

5. What do you understand by each of the following: vocational 
education; industrial education; industrial arts; manual arts and 
manual training; applied arts; vocational enlightenment, guid¬ 
ance, and placement? What other meaning have you ever heard 
attached to any of these? 

6. Using the chart, Fig. 1, explain its significance. 

7. Discuss each of the sociological factors mentioned in connection 
with the chart, Fig. 2, as health, wealth, association, culture. Are 
they ends or means? Explain. 

8. Discuss each of the psychological factors, Chart 2. Are they 
means or ends? Explain. Can you think of other psychological 
factors which ought to be considered before a complete discussion 
of method can be had? 

9. Why has the committee classified Prof. Small’s “knowledge” and 
“righteousness” as means rather than as ends? Do you agree 
with the committee’s findings ? 

10. Manual arts is designated in Fig. 2 as a means or an agency 
in the development of attitudes and ideals socially valuable; has 
manual arts therefore no economic or avocational or humanistic 
value ? Explain. 

11. Should methods for elementary schools differ from those of 
the high school? Explain. 

12. What are some of the objections offered against the practices 
of the more formal or traditional types of school? Cf. Child 
Life and the Curriculum. 

13. What possible differences are there in objectives for manual arts 
in elementary and in high schools? 




CHAPTER II 

CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF THE MANUAL ARTS 

1. Classification and Differentiation of the Manual Arts. 

Observation of common practices in those activities designated 
manual arts or manual training will show wide differences 
in the practices, and investigation will make evident equally 
wide variation as to basis for justification. Not infrequently 
like practices will be found justified upon divergent grounds. 
For the sake of convenience, these practices and their grounds 
for justification may be differentiated one from another as 
they tend to stress one or another of the following functions: 
(1) A means of expressing ideas—“No reception without 
reaction, no impression without correlative expression.” “Mo¬ 
tor consequences are what clinch.” (2) A means of develop¬ 
ing certain attitudes of mind and habits of body and mind in 
some one or more lines of industrial activity, not as ends in 
themselves in connection with the particular trade dealt with 
so much as attitudes and habits chiefly useful as a means of 
interpreting other related experiences. Upon this ground 
every boy of an upper grammar grade may be required to 
take woodwork and mechanical drawing even tho it is known 
that very few of them will become workers in wood in after 
life. Such industrial experience, as differentiated from com¬ 
mercial, agricultural, academic, etc., will make for an apprecia¬ 
tion of things industrial. (3) A means of developing a 
knowledge of technical processes and habits of mind and body 
in a given industrial activity as ends immediately helpful to 
the individual because he will make use of them in the pursuit 
of this activity in after life. The first of these we may desig¬ 
nate as expressional manual arts; the second, technical manual 
arts for general educational purposes; the third, technical 
manual arts for vocational ends. The function of the first is 


27 


28 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


free expression; of the second, appreciation of industrial 
activities; of the third, efficiency. The first is psychological in 
its signifiance; the second is cultural and disciplinary ; the 
third is vocational. 

It must be recognized that such classifications are for con¬ 
venience in discussion and that no clear-cut distinctions actually 
exist between such groups in reality. The differences are 
matters of emphasis or of tendency rather than of kind. For 
example, those values which come thru opportunity for ex¬ 
pression of ideas are to be found in manual arts justified on 
the ground of discipline, but in minor degree. Close atten¬ 
tion to acquiring efficiency in some one trade has cultural 
value in that it develops appreciation and broadens the horizon 
to that extent, minor tho it may be. 

The difficulties involved when one undertakes to classify 
sharply are seen in the attempt to place a type of work which 
is beginning to find favor with administrators of high schools 
wherein large numbers of boys must be provided with oppor¬ 
tunity for manipulative activity. These boys are not des¬ 
tined to make their living thru participation in skilled crafts, 
at least not as workmen. Administrators with a functional 
notion of education object to the traditional type of manual 
arts with its justification thru culture, discipline, appreciation, 
and are asking for a type wherein the manipulative processes 
and the accompanying information will serve as a means the 
better to prepare the prospective householder to perform the 
many home tasks of an industrial nature requiring minor 
technical knowledge and skill. Such work will not class 
fully as vocational as the term has been defined; it is 
too strongly functional to class as a discipline and an appre¬ 
ciation in its implications. It is, as it were, on the dividing 
line between the two. Until this type becomes more common 
than it now is we may simply class it as technical manual arts 
for general educational purposes. 




CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


29 


Manual arts and vocational education for industrial ac¬ 
tivities have been confused as to place and function because they 
differ not as to kind but as to emphasis upon certain factors. 
The terms vocational, prevocational, industrial or trade, and 
pre-industrial or pre-trade are terms which have often been 
applied to work differing in no essential characteristics from 



Fig. 3. Report on Dominant Aims of Manual Arts Instruction in 156 
cities in the U. S. A. From Bulletin No. 32, 1916, Bureau of 
Education, Washington, D. C. 

what has long been known as manual training. Attempts have 
been made to differentiate vocational industrial education from 
manual arts by assigning to manual arts a method of pro¬ 
cedure known as the craftsman’s while vocational industrial 
education would be distinguished by its use of the factory 
system of production in quantity. 

This differentiation, while convenient, is confusing, for 
experience has shown that both manual arts and vocational 
industrial arts may accomplish their ends thru either method 
of procedure; in fact, both methods are needed in each to 
give a complete experience. Probably the notion that manual 
arts is primarily a training for appreciation of things indus¬ 
trial, good for all pupils without regard to their probable 
future work in life—a culture, a discipline—and that voca- 




30 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


tional education is primarily a training for efficiency in pre¬ 
paration for entrance into some specific life activity which 
the pupil expects to follow, is the most helpful view for pur¬ 
poses of differentiation. 


Grade Purpose Type of Work 


I-VI 

General 

Educational 

a. Expressional—largely 

b. Technical—various simple media 

VII-IX 

General 

Educational 

a. Drafting Largely tech¬ 

nical, but ele- 

b. Woodwork mental. May be 

based on home 

c. Metalwork repair needs or 

o n industrial 

d. Other media “types” or both. 

X-XI 

Special 

Vocational 

Pupil chooses one industrial, as car¬ 
pentry, etc. 

Organized for instruction. 

Production secondary. 

XII 

Special 

Vocational 

Pupil continues subject of XI. 
Organized for production. 

Instruction secondary. 

Part-time work, if possible. 


Fig. 4. A Form of Organization of Manual Arts for general educa¬ 
tional and vocational ends. 


The terms pre-vocational or pre-trade, then, would apply to 
a type of training in the elements of a number of activities or 
trades so that the pupil might have a basis for choice. Here 
the distinguishing characteristic is the fact that the pupil 
realizes that he is headed for some one or another of these 




















CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


31 


life activities or trades and must make his choice as soon as 
possible. Fig. 3., represents graphically dominant aims for 
manual arts in 156 cities of the United States as expressed 
by those in authority in these cities.* Observation in a number 
of these cities reporting different aims shows work differing 
in no essential one from the other. It is highly probable that 
these expressions of dominant aim as trade, or even prevoca- 
tional, as shown on the chart, represent hopes and expecta¬ 
tions based upon hopes rather than justifications based upon 
investigation cf what use pupils make of these experiences 
after leaving school. Only as the majority of pupils make 
use of their school training in specific trades in their future 
life’s work are we justified in calling such school work trade 
training. Only as such school activities provide a definite 
basis for choice of future life work for a majority of pupils 
are we justified in calling the work pre-vocational. 




Expressional 

(l. Central 


\ 

Manual Arts 

)2. Incidental or illus- 




f trative. 

Manual Arts 

< 

\ 


/ 



Technical 

) 1. Form—technic 



Manual Arts 

^2. Execution—skill 


\ 

Fig. 5. 



A careful investigation of what use public school graduates 
make of such school training would probably show a larger 
number of justifications of such work on the ground of cul¬ 
ture and discipline. The extremes to which the dogma of 
discipline led educators and the more recent exposure of 
many fallacies justified under this name probably account 
for the hesitation manifest in owning to such an aim as domi¬ 
nant. Whatever the theory or hope, the fact remains that, 
whatever values lie in any practice, these are not destroyed 
^Bulletin No. 32, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, 1916. 



32 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


by wrong classification as to function and that values not 
present cannot be made so thru mere classification. 

The purpose of the classifications made in this chapter is 
to point out significant factors making for certain directions 
or tendencies rather than to mark off sharp lines of cleavage. 

Fig. 4 suggests a form of organization equally useful to the 
student taking the work for appreciation and to the student 
taking it for possible usefulness as a means of preparation for 
livelihood. It is recognized, of course, that most boys headed 
for industry cannot complete such a course because of the 
element of time and money. Such pupils will have to have 
less related work and more industrial work which will mean 
advancement in the shop experience according to necessity 
rather than according to desirability. 

Whatever these special adjustments may be, the fact should 
not be lost sight of that industries which require skilled 
workers, which provide opportunities for advancement above 
mere machine tending, have little use for boys under 18 
years, the age at which they would complete a four year high 
school course as outlined. The real problem for solution in 
the training of skilled workers is that of providing a way 
whereby boys whose parents are poor may remain in school, 
or may have training on the job, or in both school and on the 
job. This and other problems of organization and adminis¬ 
tration together with justification of the form of organiza¬ 
tion of teaching materials in Fig. 4 will be found in the 
author’s Organization and Administration of Manual and 
Industrial Arts , a companion text in preparation. 

2. Technical Manual Arts. For purposes of easy recall 
the main divisions and subdivisions of the manual arts may 
be visualized as in Fig. 5. 

Form may be loosely defined as that body of information 
and understanding of the best ways of doing any given thing, 
which information has been handed down from generation 




CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


33 


to generation—or, more accurately stated, it is the science 
underlying the art or practice which serves to increase the 
effectiveness of physical accomplishment of any given task. 
For example, thru countless generations of working wood ; 
men have evolved a method or order of procedure in what 
is called squaring-up stock, which order is used by workers 
in wood in every civilized country. This order is not arbitrary 
or haphazard, altho many an otherwise intelligent worker in 
wood cannot state the underlying reasons for this order, but 
is based upon the fact that this particular order reduces the 
chances for error to the lowest possible number. 

This reason underlies practically every other operation in 
working wood. A worker in wood, then, is said to possess 
good form and technic in respect to squaring-up stock when 
he knows and makes use of this particular order. Form applies 
to anything one may be able to do to better execution. The 
baseball player who places his hands upon the bat in a cer¬ 
tain generally prescribed way and assumes a certain position 
at the plate is said to have good form. A convenient expres¬ 
sion for the idea of form as it applies to technical manual 
arts is found in the phrase, “conventional order of procedure.” 
Technic is form in use. 

Execution has to do with muscular control in the accom¬ 
plishment of an act. Skill refers to the effectiveness with 
which the carrying out of an act meets the demands for such 
action. A worker in wood is said to be skillful when, to his 
knowledge of the conventional order of procedure in squaring- 
up the stock, he has added an ability- to actually square-up 
the stock with accuracy and ease. 

Evidences of good form are best seen when utilized in exe¬ 
cution. For this reason there sometimes arises a question in 
the mind of the beginner as to the part played by each. This 
difference may be seen readily in the case of any individual 
who is called upon to form new habits. One may understand 



34 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


fully, for example, all that enters into the riding of a bicycle 
or the driving of an automobile, or the flying of an aeroplane 
in so far as proper form is concerned; skill in execution, 
however, is a matter of improvement in muscular adjustment 
coming only thru trial and error. Two groups of boys of 
supposedly equal capacity and experience are asked to square- 
up a given number of pieces of stock. The governing con¬ 
ditions are made such that the only difference is, that one 
group is informed and has mastered mentally the conventional 
order of procedure, the correct form in squaring-up stock 
such as has been handed down from generation to generation. 
The other group is not so informed. The value of teaching 
proper form is seen when these boys have been set to work, 
also the limitations. It will be found that one group has 
secured the requisite results more quickly than the other. It will 
be found that so far as the actual acquiring of muscular 
adjustment thru trial and error is concerned the informed 
group has had little advantage over the uninformed. 

In case of each group trial and error was the necessary 
prerequisite for improvement. The chief source of advantage 
of the informed group over the uninformed lay in the fact 
that the order of procedure they were taught and encouraged 
to follow reduced the chances for error to a minimum. The 
athletic coach is of service mainly because he knows and 
teaches and encourages his students to make use of good form. 
The shop instructor is of service for the same reason. Exe¬ 
cution or the acquiring of skill is a matter in which the pupil 
must work out his own salvation, guided, of course, by the 
knowledge of proper form or technic. Form is a matter of 
intelligence, of consciousness, of connections between thought 
and thought. A consideration of matters of form will there¬ 
fore tend to delay or hold off execution. Skill, on the other 
hand, becomes effective just to the extent movement can be 
freed from conscious control in execution. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


35 



Technical manual arts are distinguished from other forms 
of manual arts chiefly thru the emphasis placed upon the 
teaching of proper form and the development of good technic 
in conventional methods of procedure as developed thru race 
experience, and upon skill in execution. Teachers of technical 


Fig. 6. Doll House Problem. 

manual arts will do well to remember that such emphasis 
represents but one aspect of educational need to be met thru 
what is called the manual arts. They will do well to remem¬ 
ber that psychologically there is little value in emphasizing 
technic and skill until a feeling of real need for these upon 
the part of the pupils has been developed thru preliminary 
spontaneous activities of a similar character which tend to 
result unsatisfactorily after awhile because of their not being 







36 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


based upon a knowledge of proper form and a fair degree 
of skill in execution. They should remember that this acquir¬ 
ing of knowledge of conventional methods of procedure, or 
form, and the development of skill in execution are not ends 
in themselves, where the highest good of the individual and 
society is sought. They are, rather, means to an end, namely, 
the development of a more efficient expression than that to be 
found in the early stages of spontaneous activity—more effi¬ 
cient because of being based upon knowledge of proper 
method of procedure and a degree of skill sufficient to serve 
as a foundation for further advancement. Emphasis upon 
technic and skill is the middle stage of Froebel’s (1) spon¬ 
taneity, (2) instruction, (3) creative effort. 

3. Expressional Manual Arts. The term expressional 
manual arts is usually taken to mean that type of construc¬ 
tive activity which is free from the necessity of making use 
of conventional methods of procedure in the manipulation of 
materials or of developing a degree of skill sufficient to have 
the product class as other than amateurish and crude from 
the standpoint of technic and skill. Manual arts character¬ 
ized by such freedom of expression may be subdivided into 
central on the one hand and incidental or illustrative on the 
other according as the ideas develop or grow out of the 
activity or the activity out of the idea. 

If, for example, children of the primary grades are en¬ 
couraged to engage in the construction or furnishing of a 
doll house, Fig. 6, and out of this activity the teacher should 
cause to be developed lessons in language or number, this 
would class as central expressional manual arts. If, on the 
other hand, certain ideas are supposed to be in the minds of 
the children and the teacher seeks to fix these thru manual 
expression, she may do so thru what is known as incidental 
or illustrative manual arts, Fig. 7. Such expression not only 
assists in fixing the information or ideas but serves as a 



CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


37 


means of clarifying such ideas, or at least of showing to the 
pupil and teacher a need for further consideration of the in¬ 
formation supposed to have been mastered. 

There are those who refuse to consider such expressional 
handwork as a part of the manual arts. To refuse to do so 
is to neglect an opportunity to make use of, and to assist in 
orienting, a kind of work which is of most vital importance 
to the manual arts movement as a whole. Much confusion 
has arisen because of a failure to distinguish clearly the aims 
and characteristics of expressional and technical manual arts. 



Fig. 7. Sand Table Problem. 


Let it be said in the beginning that those advocates of ex¬ 
pressional manual arts who strive to convince us that expres¬ 
sional manual arts is calculated to produce skill and impart 
good technic as a sort of by-product of free expression in 
various media without in any way detracting from the value 
of the expression or illustration, are confusing the issue. 
Since the purpose of expressional and illustrative manual arts 
is primarily mental, intellectual, emphasis upon the idea to be 
expressed, emphasis upon technic and skill or automatic con¬ 
nections must necessarily tend to interfere with the aim of 
this kind of work. 

For example, if we choose to have a class construct appa¬ 
ratus to illustrate the earth's movement about the sun, any 






38 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


rough block of wood may serve as a base and any rough 
objects of a spherical form serve as sun and earth, a piece 
of wire appropriately bent may be utilized to hold the bodies 
in proper position relative to one another to produce the 
motion required. The thing may be hurriedly made and be 
very crude in matters of skill in execution and in conventional 
methods of working wood; if it but serves to illustrate the 
thing desired it has served its purpose. To take time to 
teach the conventional method of procedure of squaring-up 
stock for the base and the conventional method for modeling 
a sphere would be to interfere with the free expression of the 
idea, which is the essential thing here. Or, it may be the 
making of a hurried blackboard sketch by the teacher in an 
attempt to convey better some thought or idea. To take 
time to make an elaborate drawing, excellent in technic and 
skillful in execution, would mean probably so long a delay 
in the conveying of the idea, with a probable centering of 
attention on technic and execution, that the essential thing, 
the idea to be conveyed, would be lost sight of. Of course, 
if the blackboard drawing is one to be used for purposes of 
teaching good technic, no pains should be spared to make of 
it the best of its kind. 

In the case of the illustrative drawing it is well to make use 
of such technic and skill as can be without causing a serious 
sacrifice upon the thought side. In the case of the hurried 
illustrative drawing it is the part of wisdom to erase the same 
once it has served its purpose, lest some pupil later confuse 
its aim with the aim of a technical drawing to the detriment 
of pupil ideals as to a technical drawing and his respect for 
his instructor’s ability as a draughtsman. 

With the limited time usually devoted to expressional manual 
arts, central and illustrative, in the schools of today, and the 
fact that our grade teachers of the regular school, by whom 
this work is to be given, are in the main idea minded and 




CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


39 


idea trained, there is in general small need to emphasize 
dangers incident to expressional manual arts work. Such 
dangers do exist, however, and it may be well to mention 
the more common that the enthusiast for this type of work 
may not bring his subject into disrepute thru extreme interest. 

First, as has been stated, there is the danger of failing to 
recognize that the aims and means of expressional and tech¬ 
nical manual arts conflict and that it is hardly possible to 
accomplish technical ends in expressional work without doing 
injustice to freedom of expression or else failing of accom¬ 
plishment of standards of achievement inherent in results 
that shall class as technical. 

Second, where the teacher of expressional manual arts 
recognizes the fact that freedom of expression is the primary 
reason for the existence of such work, there is sometimes a 
failure to appreciate the fact that there is also a need and a 
place for that other type of experience known as technical 
manual arts with its restrictions upon freedom of expression. 
Teachers of technical manual arts are equally prone to forget 
that their type of work is not the only type which may legiti¬ 
mately find a place in the field of educational endeavor. 

Third, there is the danger of allowing a child to express 
himself thru crude methods of expression when the problem 
is one which calls for what we have designated a more effi¬ 
cient expression—an expression based upon a knowledge of 
form or technic and a skill already possessed by the pupil 
in such degree as not seriously to interfere with freedom of 
expression. For example, in the furnishing of a doll house 
in the primary grade, the children may have need for a paper 
mat of simple weave and color design. It is quite likely they 
will have been taught the technic of such weaving and color 
selection in their technical handwork. The teacher will do 
well in the furnishing of the house to insist that the children 



40 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


make use of this technic and skill in the making of the mat 
for the house. 

Fourth, teachers of illustrative handwork should remember 
that a thing which is perfectly clear in the mind of a child 
needs no illustration thru construction—words or speech will 
save time and time so saved may be utilized for other pur¬ 
poses. If it is participation in activity that is wanted, and 
no problems really needing illustration or clarification are 
available, the time may well be spent upon technical handwork. 

Fifth, teachers of expressional manual arts should remem¬ 
ber that central expressional manual arts, while used pri¬ 
marily as an activity out of which related academic work 
such as language and number may be developed, is also a 
preliminary to technical manual arts. It is Froebel’s (1) 
spontaneity, which leads to and prepares the way for (2) in¬ 
struction, thru creating a feeling of need. 

4. Relation of Expressional to Technical Manual Arts. 
Expressional and technical manual arts have been differen¬ 
tiated with respect to stress upon, or absence of, intellectual 
values. It is said that expressional manual arts is strongly 
intellectual while technical manual arts is not. This state¬ 
ment needs explanation. There are two kinds of intellectual 
activity: (1) a type wherein the individual is responsible 
for initiating and working out means to an end; (2) a type 
wherein the individual thinks the thoughts of another or 
others for the accomplishment of a given end. If reference 
is had to this first type, then expressional manual arts is 
superior. 

However, sight should not be lost of the fact that exercise 
of initiative in the planning of means to an end is very ineffi¬ 
cient in accomplishing results until it is based upon instruc¬ 
tion in conventional methods of doing related work and a 
fair degree of skill. If this latter type of thinking is not 
so high as the first, it is much more efficient in accomplishing 



CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


41 


predetermined ends. If one has the advantage upon the side 
of a higher type of intellectual activity, the other has the 
advantage upon the side of knowledge of race experience 
and skill. 

It must be admitted, of course, that a conflict does exist 
between free expression and instruction in conventional 
methods of procedure—one cannot tell a boy how to make 
a mortise-and-tenon joint and at the same time have him 
discover how it is to be made. Likewise, the development of 
great skill cannot be expected at the time a student is men¬ 
tally active in an eflfort to make the first application of 
instruction. 

Expressional and technical manual arts have been differ¬ 
entiated by the statement that expressional manual arts has 
no subject-matter of its own but is merely a means of teach¬ 
ing other subject-matter, while technical manual arts is an 
end in itself and is possessed of subject-matter. Strangely 
enough, these attributes are, by others, reversed—expressional 
manual arts is said to have subject-matter, while technical man¬ 
ual arts is said not to have subject-matter but to be of value 
as a means or method. 

These conflicts are accounted for by the fact that both 
expressional and technical manual arts have dual signifi¬ 
cance. When it is said that expressional manual arts has 
subject-matter, reference is had to that type of expressional 
manual arts which has been called central. When expres¬ 
sional manual arts is said to be a means, reference is had 
to illustrative manual arts. Technical manual arts utilized 
for general educational purposes, as a discipline, is valuable 
chiefly as a method. A boy taking woodwork who never 
becomes a worker in wood is benefited not so much because 
he has mastered the subject-matter of woodwork but because 
he has acquired certain attitudes, habits of mind and body 
which assist him in interpreting related experiences in later 




42 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

life. Technical manual arts for the boy who expects to fol¬ 
low that particular line of work in after life, technical manual 
arts for vocational ends, is valuable for subject-matter as 
well as method; skill and knowledge of conventional methods 
of procedure here are ends in themselves. 

5. Harmonization of Conflicting Aims. In general, con¬ 
flicts between expressional and technical forms are best har¬ 
monized in terms of Froebti’s (1) spontaneity, (2) instruc¬ 
tion, (3) creative effort. The growth of consciousness, we 
are told, is like the clearing of a fog—at first we see darkly, 
then, one by one we are able to distinguish or differentiate 
objects and to classify. Expressional manual arts is largely 
a means of working out this clarifying process in the mind 
of the child, not so far removed from that “big, blooming, 
buzzing confusion,” that one-ness of the individual from 
which he works out his differentiations thru movement, ran¬ 
dom at first and later controlled. In performing this func¬ 
tion manual arts is concerned with the expression of ideas 
rather than with processes. 

Of no less importance, altho incidental, is the fact that 
such spontaneous or free activity becomes the means of 
developing a feeling of real need for knowledge of better 
ways of accomplishing results in the manipulation of ma¬ 
terials. With the accomplishment of this, the pupil is ready 
for the second of Froebel’s steps. Better ways of accom¬ 
plishing results are to be secured thru instruction and prac¬ 
tice in the applications of conventional methods of procedure 
developed thru race experience. 

This latter constitutes the distinguishing feature of tech¬ 
nical manual arts. Once the pupil has mastered technic and 
a fair degree of skill in the particular convention under con¬ 
sideration he should be given opportunity to enter upon step 
three, creative effort based upon such instruction. This last 
step represents the highest attainment in the educational pro- 




CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


43 


cess. It should be the culmination of all manual arts experi¬ 
ence. It is the most efficient type of expression; more effi¬ 
cient than spontaneous expression because of being based 
upon knowledge of proper form and a degree of skill suffi¬ 
cient to serve as a foundation for future advancement; more 
efficient than the second stage, instruction, because it is free, 
the ideas originating in the mind of the worker and not 
being imposed by another or others. Tho spontaneity, in¬ 
struction, and creative effort are mutually exclusive at any 
one time, yet by close alternation and development the advan¬ 
tages of each may be realized. 

It will serve to clarify the confusion which sometimes 
exists as to the relation of expressional to technical manual 
arts if a definite time for technical manual arts is set aside 
on the school program. At such times technic and skill may 
be emphasized and both teacher and pupil brought to see 
that here the aim is the acquiring of a knowledge of conven¬ 
tional method and of skill—it may be no more than the simple 
paper weaving of the first grade. Expressional handwork 
may be given during the time of the class, the subject mat¬ 
ter of which it is intended to develop or to clarify and illus¬ 
trate—at any rate, the difference in aims should be evident 
to both teacher and pupils and standards set accordingly. 

Expressional handwork will find its largest usefulness in 
the earlier grades, gradually diminishing in importance as 
the children grow older and better able to get ideas thru 
words. Technical manual arts will find itself with smaller 
time needs in the beginning grades, for little children see 
little need for technic and skill, with growing importance as 
age increases. 

While it is highly desirable that aims in expressional and 
technical manual arts be clearly defined and differentiated in 
the minds of both pupil and teacher, it should be recognized 
that this is merely a matter of convenience and of emphasis 




44 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


in conflicting aims. It is desirable, for example, that book¬ 
lets, clay animals, paper mats, woven rugs, etc., made in 
technical manual arts periods, where proper technic and form 
and skill in execution were emphasized, be utilized in the 
working out of expressional manual arts problems, such as 
the use of the rugs in the central expressional manual arts 
problem of the doll house, or of the clay animals in sandtable 
problems in illustrating lessons in geography, history, or 
literature, etc. 

Again, in any illustrative or other expressional lesson, 
pupils should be encouraged to make use of such technic and 
skill as they have already secured in the technical manual 
arts, in so far as this can be done without seriously interfer¬ 
ing with the free expression of the lesson. Out of such cor¬ 
relations should develop eventually a type of expression 
which we have called a more efficient expression—more effi¬ 
cient because of its being based upon technic and skill in 
related matters. For example, out of a boy’s seventh or eighth 
grade technical shopwork in wood, wherein he has been re¬ 
quired to emphasize technic and skill, ought to come an abnity 
to express his personal desires for the execution of pieces of 
woodwork, such as furniture, much more efficiently than if 
he had never had such technical experiences. Then, too, if 
such a boy has been given at least a few opportunities for 
the carrying out of such original pieces of work as his mas¬ 
tery of technic and skill make possible, he will be a more 
valuable type of citizen than one who has never been encour¬ 
aged to think or act other than as he is told. 

6. Summary. For the sake of convenience the manual 
arts may be classified and differentiated according as they 
stress one or another of the following functions: (1) A 
means of expressing ideas without restraint due to consider¬ 
ations of conventional methods of procedure and skill. (2) A 
means of developing certain attitudes of mind and habits of 




CLASSIFICATION AND DIFFERENTIATION 


45 


both mind and body in some one or more industrial lines, 
which attitudes and habits are possessed of value chiefly 
because they enable the individual to properly evaluate and 
appreciate things industrial in his future life contacts. (3) A 
means of developing technic and skill in some one or more 
industrial lines as ends in themselves, useful because the 
individual expects to follow that line or those lines after 
leaving school. 

When emphasis is placed as in number one above, this is 
designated expressional manual art; when stress is placed 
as in number two, it is designated as technical manual arts 
for general educational purposes; when the stress is as in 
number three, we have what is called technical manual arts 
for vocational ends. 

Technical manual arts may be divided into considerations 
of form, technic, execution, and skill in execution. Expres¬ 
sional manual arts may be considered under subdivisions 
known as central and incidental or illustrative. 

Technical and expressional manual arts are differentiated 
one from the other mainly thru the variation in stress or 
lack of stress upon form, technic and skill in execution. 

In spite of conflict of aims, both expressional and technical 
manual arts can be justified and harmonized as a part of the 
educational scheme; this is best done thru Froebel’s (1) spon¬ 
taneity, (2) instruction, (3) creative effort. Expressional 
manual arts is most concerned with number one, spontaneity; 
technical manual arts with number two, instruction; both are 
preparatory to number three, creative effort. 

Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapter XIV, review 
Chapter XIII. 

Dobbs: Primary Handwork, pp. 1-5, 24-26, 115-121. 

Dobbs: Illustrative Handwork, Chapter I. 

Tudd : Psychology of High School Subjects, Chapters XI, XII 

Griffith: Correlated Courses in Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, pp. 1-2, 7-11. 



46 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


Class Discussion: 

1. What is meant by the term expression? 

2. What is form; technic; execution; skill? 

3. Define form and skill with reference to consciousness. 

4. To what extent is expressional manual arts concerned with 
skill? Technical manual arts? 

5. Enumerate the general principles, as laid down by Thorn¬ 
dike, for teaching manual arts. 

6. Discuss two dangers mentioned by Thorndike. 

7. State the principles given by Thorndike in securing efficient 
execution or skill. 

8. Illustrate the effect of delayed capacities upon the proper 
organization of manual arts teaching materials. 

9. What bearing would Thorndike’s “Attention and Execu¬ 
tion” have upon early Swedish sloyd’s insistence upon 
definite foot position in learning to plane? (The proper 
position of the feet is painted upon the floor and the stu¬ 
dent is asked to. stand upon these markings.) Would you 
ever teach positions? 

10. Discuss the principle of self-criticism. 

11. Can you harmonize a seeming lack of agreement as to 
relative emphasis to be placed upon technic and skill in the 
readings in Primary Handwork and Correlated Courses? 

12. Examine and try to classity the type of work described in 
each of the following: 

Dobbs: Illustrative Handwork. 

Buxton and Curran: Paper and Cardboard Construction. 
Griffith :. Correlated Courses in Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing. 

13. Examine back numoers ot Manual 1 raining Magazine and 
Industrial Arts Magazine for descriptions of different kinds 
of manual arts activities, and try to classify them. 





CHAPTER III 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


1. Introduction. The term industrial arts is frequently 
used to designate a type of work long known as manual arts 
or manual training. As used in this text, the term industrial 
arts has reference to that type of educational experience 
wherein sufficient relative time and direction are given that 
it may adequately serve the needs of those boys who have 
definitely decided to enter industry upon leaving school, or 
may supplement the experience of those already at work in 
industry. 

It is not proposed in this discussion to enter upon any 
extended effort at justification of industrial arts as a part of 
education or to explain the various forms of organization or 
administration which are to be found. These are fully treated 
in a companion volume in preparation. Suffice it to say that 
industrial arts finds a place in education as do agriculture, 
commercial subjects, medicine, law, engineering, etc., because 
society has need for trained workers in industry even as it 
has in these other lines of activity, and because an individual 
so trained makes a better citizen than if untrained. Indus¬ 
trial arts, with its early specialization, finds a place in elemen¬ 
tary education because of the fact that those it seeks to aid 
cannot or do not remain in school thru the high school age, 
the age most suited for serious pursuit of vocational train¬ 
ing. Figs. 2 and 4. 

2. Three Types of Reactive Need in Industrial Arts Edu¬ 
cation. Reactions in the educational process come about 
thru (1) random movement brought about thru instinctive 
tendencies, (2) thru simple unconscious imitation, or imita¬ 
tion involving little original thought power, and (3) thru 


47 


48 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


reflective thinking wherein an analysis of underlying reasons 
is an ever important consideration. 

The first type of reaction is a necessary stage in every 
effort at habit formation. However, it is an expensive 
method and one which may be reduced to a minimum by 
making use of knowledge obtained thru race experience. 
There will always be a sufficient amount of random effort 
without needlessly encouraging its kind. One may have all 
the knowledge necessary about learning to ride a bicycle but, 
as has been said, it is only by repeated trials that one learns 
to ride. 

The second type of reaction depends upon a kind of intel¬ 
lectual activity which is a necessary part to the learning pro¬ 
cess but which has limitations when depended upon exclu¬ 
sively. Learning by or thru mere imitation with little atten¬ 
tion to analysis and reason may make a very efficient machine 
tender or automaton; it cannot make for race progress. Used 
as a means and not as an end this type of thinking provides 
a valuable aid thru which to raise the child from one stage 
of development to a still higher stage. For example, a boy 
would have to spend much time to discover thru random 
experimentation all that goes to make up the knowledge and 
experience of a first-class carpenter. Thru exercise of the 
imitative faculty he may rather quickly be brought to an 
efficient stage of development as to knowledge of what the 
race has discovered about carpentry and as to mere execution 
of what others plan. 

The third type of reaction is the highest—a type of reac¬ 
tion based upon an analysis of situation and a reasoning as 
to cause and effect. Here the subject-matter and method 
of procedure of the lower type are an essential part, but the 
horizon of mere practical expediency as to each specific 
experience is broadened into one of understanding thru gen¬ 
eralized and systematized consideration of underlying prin- 




INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


49 


ciples. The world has always paid highest tribute to this type 
of reaction. The laborer in the ditch may be, and is, doing 
a worthy work and should be suitably rewarded. The world 
has never paid him as it has paid the engineer who planned 
the project of which digging the ditch is a part, or the 
skilled mechanic on the job. It is hardly probable it ever will. 

3. Basis for Awards in Industry. The author recently 
viewed a motion picture film the subject of which was “In 
Old and New China.” In old China he saw men harnessed 
as animals to great, heavy carts loaded with heavy merchan¬ 
dise. Thin, gaunt men they were, with little clothing on 
their bodies and only a rag to protect their flesh from the 
heavy ropes at which they strained with all their might, a 
dozen or more men to each cart. Soon there flashed upon 
the screen a scene from new China, among other things a 
modern motor truck with liveried driver and a load of mer¬ 
chandise five or six times that being drawn by the dozen 
men, moving with apparently no human effort. Once we 
have analyzed the various factors involved in the makeup 
of these two scenes, we shall have determined the basis for 
awards in industry. 

In an analysis of the situation in the illustration above we 
find representatives of each of the three types of reaction 
enumerated in section one. We find the common laborer, we 
find the skilled laborer, and, by inference, we find the intel¬ 
lectual, who may or may not have been greatly skilled in 
matters of execution in the realm of muscle, the man who 
designed or invented the truck. We also have, by inference, 
the capitalist. For purposes of this discussion the capitalist 
may be eliminated, since the type of reaction he represents 
is not greatly different in its origin from that represented by 
the inventor, the intellectual. 

From this analysis we find, so far as our sympathies are 
concerned, the human animals of old China deserving of 




50 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


the highest awards. Awards, however, are made according 
to economic considerations rather than ethical, as we well 
know. Further analysis will show that awards are made 
according to the educational investment the individual has 
made. It is in or thru the learning process that man makes 
his investment, and man learns practically all those things 
which place him above the brute creation thru the guidance 
of intellect. If, for example, one chooses to learn nothing 
more comolex than tugging with might and main at a great 
rope fastened to a heavy load of merchandise, one may 
expect to find competition such that awards for service are 
reduced to means of bare existence. If he chooses to become 
a skilled mechanician and motor truck driver, he must expend 
time and energy in learning those things necessary for effi¬ 
ciency in this kind of work and in perfecting muscular 
coordinations. 

Skill comes about when the worker has been instructed in the 
best form for doing his particular kind of work, as handed 
down from generation to generation. The guiding in the assimi¬ 
lation of such form is the work of intellect. The truck driver 
had made a larger initial investment educationally than had the 
coolies. He had become skilled in driving and in motor truck 
mechanism, if he did it most effectively, thru intellectual 
investment as well as thru feeling, in that he had been 
instructed in the things the race had found out about motor 
truck mechanism and driving. His awards for service are 
proportionate to his intelligence and his skill, skill playing the 
less important part. In matters of skill the truck driver is not 
only superior to the coolie but often to the inventor as well. 
His economic rewards, however, tho decidedly greater than 
those of the coolie, do not, as a rule, compare at all favorably 
with those of the inventor. 

What about the inventor; why does he secure so much 
greater awards than either truck driver or coolie? Cer- 




INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


51 


tainly not because he is necessarily more skilled in the mat¬ 
ters of muscular coordination in execution. In all probability 
he had a model-maker construct the model which he submit¬ 
ted to the patent office. Highest awards are given those who 
can perfect devices which will save time and energy and 
make for comfort and convenience for the race in ways not 
before known. This is what we call selective thinking as 
distinguished from that of the second type, that of the skilled 
mechanic, wherein thinking is chiefly a matter of association. 
So valuable or productive is this type of thinking, that the 
world rewards it highest even tho its owner may be inferior 
in matters of skill in execution in materials. 

To revert to our illustration, it is the inventor of the truck 
who gets the highest awards. What has he invested educa¬ 
tionally? True, some inventors are born with a type of 
mind which naturally puts things together in new ways; more 
inventors succeed by investing hours of time in developing 
the thing which afterward brings them great awards. Cer¬ 
tain men are born with tendencies toward skill so that mat¬ 
ters of birth may be neglected for purposes of evaluating the 
three types. The inventor makes his investments chiefly in 
intelligence of a certain type; it is this type which is the 
largest factor making for success or convenience of the race 
in guiding execution. In the final analysis, then, investment 
thru the learning process may be considered as the basis for 
awards. This investment may be in the form of increased 
intelligence or skill or both. Intellectual investment in turn 
may be of two kinds, common or associative and selective. 

4. Industrial Education Must Provide Opportunity for 
Individual Specialization Along Any One of These Three 
Types of Reaction. Aristotelian philosophy proposed a 
social order of things wherein the social body was to be 
brought to a high state of economic perfection or efficiency 
thru the recognition of class distinctions. There were to be 



52 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


the intellectuals, the skilled workers, the common laborers. 
Rewards were to be distributed according to class, intellec¬ 
tuals first and laborers last. Members of the classes were to 
be determined not by individual preference but by the dictum 
of certain members of the social order itself. Democracy 
cannot stand sponsor for an Aristotelian philosophy of indus¬ 
trial education. Democracy is based upon the principle of 
equal rights and equal opportunities for all. This being the 
case, opportunity must be open always for any boy to be¬ 
come whatsoever he wishes, whether it be intellectual or 
skilled mechanic or laborer. This opportunity for individual 
freedom of choice in the matter of future occupation is the 
distinguishing feature of a democracy from an autocracy. 

Since a democracy demands equal opportunities for all, and, 
since the intellectual type has been able to command the high¬ 
est awards, education in democracies has not infrequently 
drawn the conclusion that its work consists solely in the 
training of its young for this type. Education even in a 
democracy should provide for all three types of reaction men¬ 
tioned above. There should be extended courses to develop 
mental grasp and technical skill, with emphasis upon indi¬ 
vidual welfare commensurate with the individual’s later po¬ 
sition as a citizen of the commonwealth. There should be 
shorter courses so directly planned and pointed toward indus¬ 
try and the other vocations, and taken at such early ages 
that individual welfare seemingly is sunk in specific indus¬ 
trial demands for a machine tender produced in the shortest 
possible time. The more extended courses are better, of 
course, as a general proposition. Limitations as to time and 
money available for educational purposes will largely con¬ 
dition the type of education a boy will be able to secure,. 
Mental capacity and natural fitness will enter as factors. Just 
so long as wealth is as unevenly distributed as it is, and no 
greater provisions are made for the economically unfortunate, 



INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


53 


education will be doing all it can for a large number when, 
thru such vocational experience it provides instruction in 
subject-matter and method in the shortest possible time. 

Education in a democracy must do more than provide a 
course of instruction suited to those who expect to become 
members of the director class; it must also provide instruc¬ 
tion for those going into the skilled labor class. For those 
who are unable to take such extended courses, it must provide 
a type which will better their condition in life, small tho this 
may be. Much of this must be offered thru part-time, or 
evening classes, and thru training on the job. There is a 
place for every type of reaction in the world’s work: reaction 
with little mental effort, work wherein the employer does not 
desire a thinking individual and where a boy taught to think 
in the largest sense would be unhappy; reaction requiring 
somewhat more thought power; and reaction which demands 
a high degree of intelligence. Opportunities educationally 
are not equal when only that type of education is offered 
which the well-to-do and the intellectually inclined may se¬ 
cure ; opportunities ar^ equal when the various types are 
provided for. 

5. Fundamental Principles of Teaching Applicable to 
Industrial Arts. What we shall teach is determined by 
social and economic conditions. This being the case, subject- 
matter must always have a large part to play in the determi¬ 
nation of educational procedure. When it comes to a question 
of how we shall teach, we find a conditioning factor that 
modifies the emphasis which might otherwise be placed upon 
subject-matter. How we shall teach is, according to peda¬ 
gogical principles, to be determined by child nature. This 
means that attention must be paid to individual needs and 
desires. These factors, educational subject-matter and child 
nature, tend to conflict; it is the teacher’s problem to balance 
them as best he can, placing emphasis first on one then on 



54 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


the other. For example, psychologically, education must grow 
out of the interests and desires of the pupils. If subject- 
matter is of such nature that the pupils’ desires or interests 
cannot be enlisted within a reasonable time, then the process 
of education is in vain for those pupils no matter how logi¬ 
cally the subject-matter may be organized or how valuable the 
experience may be from the social-economic point of view. On 
the other hand, desire must develop into efficient reactions, as 
judged by social-economic standards, just as soon as the 
developing nature of the pupils will permit. This means a 
growing emphasis upon subject-matter. 

While the fundamental principles of teaching are applicable 
to industrial arts teaching, practice will be found to vary 
*rom that of manual arts for similarly aged pupils in matters 
of time allowance, emphasis upon certain methods of pro¬ 
cedure, allowance for individual differences, ability to exe¬ 
cute, etc., and in matters of relative emphasis to be placed 
upon thought provoking content and skill in execution, be¬ 
cause of the fact that economic necessity forces children of 
certain classes to interest themselves in efficiency in adult 
activities before normal development would dictate. Normal 
growth of capacity for serious thought and action in social 
economic directions is as diagrammed in Fig. 4. According 
to this, serious emphasis upon efficiency, the aim of industrial 
arts, is not stressed until second, third, and fourth year high 
school age, and after a development of interest in, and feeling 
of need for, the same has been brought about thru activities 
more closely related to childish interests and capacity. 

It is possible to develop a rather high degree of efficiency 
in certain kinds of industrial work requiring comparatively 
narrow skill and intelligence before the second, third, and 
fourth year high school age. It is possible to develop an 
interest in the acquiring of efficiency where the boy knows 



INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


55 


he is headed toward industry and efficiency rather than appre¬ 
ciation. Boys can be induced to take interest in the making 
of large lots of equipment requiring much duplication of pro¬ 
cesses if they have developed a consciousness or feeling of 
need for efficiency along the line of some industrial pursuit. 

Unless this feeling of need can be developed within a 
reasonable time, industrial education will be as profitless edu¬ 
cationally as is any other type of education similarly affected. 
Knowledge upon the part of the pupil of the large place to 
be held by efficiency and the increased time allotment for the 
accomplishment of the same will make it possible for the 
industrial arts student to approach that 100 per cent efficiency, 
which the industrial world demands, much more quickly than 
it can be done thru manual arts with its smaller time allow¬ 
ances and its interests in things more personal or individual 
and less economic. Even in industrial arts training, however, 
as much time as possible should be allowed for the growth 
of skill and intelligence, so that industrial arts teaching is 
subject in this as in all other respects to the application of 
principles of education even as are the manual arts. 

6. Effect of Emphasizing Efficiency in Execution, or Skill, 
in Industrial Arts Education. Efficiency or skill in execution 
can be accomplished only at the expense of attention to intel¬ 
ligence. The truth of this assertion will be developed in Chap¬ 
ter XVI. For example, a quick way to develop efficiency 
in the framing of a half-pitch roof in carpentry is to take a 
framing square and show the student just how to place the 
square on the material, telling him just what numbers to 
take on the tongue and on the blade. After this has been 
done, the student is to be set to work putting this instruction 
into execution, repeating until the reaction is without thought, 
as it were. The psychological processes here are represented 
by paths number two and three of Fig. 29, to be explained 
later. This example represents a type of reaction wherein in- 



56 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


tellect has a part. Its part consists merely in recalling the 
instruction in the earlier stages of application. 

A quicker means of developing efficiency in execution, and 
many otherwise good carpenters know no other, consists 
in the foreman’s laying out the patterns for the various kinds 
of rafters after which the workmen come along and, using 
these patterns, lay out and cut the rafters needed. This 
latter type involves comparatively no thought upon the part 
of the workmen in so far as a knowledge of roof framing is 
concerned; it may well class as Path No. 1 of Fig. 29. 

Continuing the illustration, our foreman himself as a rule 
has so neglected intellect in order to attend to execution that 
he has never taken time from execution to develop intelligence 
about the principles governing roof framing. He finds it 
easier to take the limited information given him, which infor¬ 
mation consisted of a statement of the rules governing the 
framing of rafters for the roof of the square cornered build¬ 
ing, and then attend diligently to applying this. He would 
be non-plussed if required to frame or lay out rafters for a 
roof the frame of which was not square. Yet the fact is, 
that roof framing is a science as well as an art; once the 
principles are understood any kind of a roof can be framed. 

Industrial arts can attend to the immediate development 
of a high degree of efficiency in execution; it does not of 
necessity have to confine its attention to this alone. Just 
as in the accompanying illustration from carpentry there was 
a type of execution involving little thought, a reaction involv¬ 
ing more thought, and a reaction involving a high degree of 
thinking, so in any industrial arts practice we may have the 
same situations. Quite likely society will continue to make 
progress in the future as it has in the past by the maintenance 
of these three classes, those who specialize in science, the 
intellectuals of the crafts; those who balance science and 
practice, the skilled craftsmen; and those who are proficient 




INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


57 


in execution but must have someone of the intellectuals do 
the thinking for them, lay out their work. The fact to be 
remembered is, that we may have efficiency in execution 
shortly but that it comes about thru the correspondingly 
early elimination of intelligence as it has to do with the 
operation under consideration. Efficiency may be delayed 
in industrial arts, but eventually it must be secured if the 
work is to class as industrial or vocational. It may take the 
form of directing others, or of executing what others direct, 
or it may balance these. 

7. Industrial Arts Education and Cultural Values. What¬ 
ever the value or lack of value of industrial arts as a means 
of culture, its right to a place in the field of public school 
education must be conceded. Social, economic and other 
values justify industrial arts in education. However, there 
has been no small amount of discussion as to what effect, 
culturally, is produced by industrial arts educational methods. 

There is no unanimity of opinion as to what culture really 
is: the most common feeling in the matter seems to be that 
culture, in common language, consists in one's capacity to 
appreciate the other fellow's point of view. If this is true, 
then industrial arts is cultural just to the extent it provides 
adequate opportunity for breadth of experience and view. 
The individual trained to immediate reaction in industrial 
lines requiring little thought, and who is never encouraged 
to supplement this with other worth while experiences, can 
hardly be said to be cultured. 

On the other hand, an individual whose education and 
experience has consisted solely in academic training along 
some narrow line of intellectual activity can hardly be con¬ 
sidered as broadly appreciative of the point of view of that 
large body of people who make their living thru working 
with their hands. Possibly the boy trained to efficiency in 
an industrial line, which training has included training in 



58 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


related English, related science, hygiene, citizenship, indus¬ 
trial history, etc., can claim to be possessed of as much culture 
as can one who has spent an equal amount of time in train¬ 
ing in purely academic subject-matter preparatory to college 
entrance requirements. 

If culture refers to opportunity to do selective thinking, 
to stress intellect, the illustration from carpentry should make 
clear that industrial arts education may and does include that 
class we have called intellectuals as well as the class which 
depends upon non-intellectual reponses. 

8. Dangers to be Avoided. First, there is the danger 
of trying to justify the industrial arts thru condemnation of 
the manual arts. A more reasonable view will recognize the 
legitimate place of manual arts as a means of developing 
breadth of experience and appreciation, and as a basis for 
future industrial arts experience should the student decide 
to enter upon an industrial pursuit as a means of livelihood 
With the limited time devoted to manual arts, 90 to 180 
minutes a week in the grades and not over 80 minutes a day 
in the high schools, industrial arts will not expect manual 
arts to be able to develop an efficiency equal to that which 
can be developed where one-half of each day is devoted to 
industrial shopwork. It will recognize that students with 
the manual arts experience with its limited time, tho losers 
in the matter of industrial efficiency, are gainers in other 
directions which, for those who are not going into industry, 
may be of more value than increased industrial efficiency. 

A second danger lies in the confusion not uncommon in 
the minds of industrial arts advocates wherein they fail to 
differentiate low type industrial activity from higher types. 
For example, one may sometimes see bright, capable boys 
with time and money to prepare for better things spending 
days and weeks at developing efficiency in a type of produc¬ 
tion work requiring little thought. Sometimes the work re- 



INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


59 


quires little skill as well as little thought. The fact that an 
educational situation is one from “real life” should not blind 
one to the fact that all real life activities are subject to differ¬ 
entiation into varying values educationally and economically. 
A student who has time and means, mental capacity and phy¬ 
sical ability to enter upon industrial activities of a higher type 
should not be allowed, let alone encouraged, to spend large 
blocks of time developing efficiency in low type activities. 
If, for example, a boy with such time and money for prepara¬ 
tion wants to follow carpentry as a life activity, he should 
be encouraged to enter upon a course of training which will 
be of such character that he may become a master in his 
craft rather than, what is called in derision, a jack carpenter, 
one who can do nothing which has not been mentally pre¬ 
digested for him by the foreman. 

Conversely, there has been no small amount of confused 
thinking brought about largely thru failure to differentiate 
values placed upon certain experiences as educational means 
and the same type of experiences in real life. The fact that 
certain real life experiences of a low type have been selected 
for school use in training pupils who cannot, because of 
economic or other reasons, take a higher type, has led some 
educators to conclude that therefore such low type activities 
are an essential part of every individual’s training and after¬ 
life experience—in other words, that equality of opportunity 
necessitates equality of classes in real life in the matter of 
work and reward. We speak of the dignity of common labor 
in our efforts to justify equality of opportunity. This is 
right, but equality of reward is another matter. 

However desirable this latter may be from the standpoint 
of ethics, the fact remains that so long as rewards are given 
in a competitive market, the unthinking laborer cannot hope 
to fare as well as members of the director class whose places 
are won by the few who have added to a fair degree of skill 



60 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


and understanding, power to think along new lines. The 
fact that originality and initiative are so productive as well 
as so rare is what causes the world to regard them and reward 
them so highly when they manifest themselves in time or 
labor-saving devices. An enthusiastic advocate* of voca¬ 
tional education of large salary may assert that he is willing 
to “get into the trench and do his share of the world’s dirty 
work”; in fact, neither he nor any other man of equally keen 
intellect is getting into the trench. The world is not asking 
him to do this, for it can make better use of his talents as 
a member of the director class, as evidenced by the position 
and salary it gives him. 

The problem is not one of making a president of the United 
States of every boy; neither is it one of requiring every presi¬ 
dent of the United States to get into the trench and do his 
part of the world’s dirty work. It is one of providing oppor¬ 
tunity for the full and free development of every boy, not 
neglecting the less fortunate who must occupy the humbler 
positions in life as the world classifies them. It is also an 
ethical problem of trying, in addition to providing oppor¬ 
tunity for training, to provide means whereby the economically 
unfortunate may secure larger training than they otherwise 
could. Not every boy may become a Henry Ford in the in¬ 
dustrial world. It is to be hoped a new day is dawning 
when, on the other hand, the Henry Fords of industry, com¬ 
merce, etc., will recognize the fact that without the manual 
dexterity of the men in their factories their ingenuity and 
creative thinking would amount to but little. The laborer 
of low degree, and even the skilled laborer, has not always 
received his just share in the distribution of profits indus¬ 
trially. The director class too often has violated moral obli- 


*Dean E. Davenport, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, 
in address before Parents and Teachers Association, Oak Park, Ill. 




INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


61 


gations in taking a share of profits which has left the com¬ 
mon worker in poverty. 

9. Summary. Industrial arts, then, may justify types 
of training and the placing of emphasis upon connections 
making for skill and efficiency without apology. It will not 
allow itself to be drawn into a false position of claiming a 
low type is a high type when it is not. Neither will it allow 
its adversaries to class all industrial arts education as neces¬ 
sarily of a low type. Industrial arts has its types which, to 
say the least, compare favorably with types of training in other 
lines in matters of science, intelligence, culture. While effi¬ 
ciency in execution largely distinguishes industrial arts from 
manual arts, efficiency may be delayed for purposes of devel¬ 
oping intelligence in the work under consideration. In the 
final analysis, efficiency must be present if the experience is 
to class as vocational industrial, and the pupil must make 
use of such experience as a means of livelihood. 


Reference Reading: 

Judd: Psychology of High School Subjects, Chapters XII, 
XIII. 

Leavitt: Examples of Industrial Education. 

Bennett: The Manual Arts, Chapters IV, VII. 

Dewey: Democracy and Education , Chapters XIX, XXIII. 

Class Discussion: 

1. What factor is emphasized in industrial arts which makes 
possible a differentiation from manual arts? What dif¬ 
ferences are there in purpose? 

2. Discuss the demands for industrial education as enumerated 
by Leavitt. 

3. Enumerate and evaluate each of the three types of reactive 
needs commonly recognized. 

4. Distinguish industrial education of a democracy from that 
of an autocracy. 

5. Is industrial education subject to the same fundamental 
principles of teaching as are the manual arts? Why then 
do we find decided variations in practice in the matter of 
interest, in subject matter, and methods of procedure? 

6. Discuss the effect upon intellect of emphasizing efficiency 
in execution. 



62 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


7 . Is culture possible in industrial arts education? 

8. Will industrial arts education bring about the elimination 
of class distinctions with an equality of reward? Why or 
why not? 

9. What then, is industrial arts education with equality of 
opportunity expected to accomplish? 

10. Discuss some of the dangers incident to industrial arts 
education. 

11. Would you class as industrial education a type of school 
experience wherein children studied about industry and 
made replicas of certain factors as best they might. For 
example, a type wherein children studied about the steam 
engine, making steam engines out of materials such as they 
could work conveniently. Discuss. 

12. Examine the work of a number of schools, as described 
in their reports, and discuss the value of such work from 
the standpoint of industrial training. 




CHAPTER IV 

INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 


1. Instincts and Capacities. Instincts have been defined 
as natural, inborn tendencies toward definite actions along 
lines of racial development. A more understandable definition, 
possibly, may be obtained by referring to Path No. 1, Fig. 29, 
in the understanding of which we may say with Prof. Thorn¬ 
dike that instincts are unlearned connections. Capacities may 
be defined as connections possible but not in use. The kicking 
of the legs, the waving about of the arms, the crying of the 
newly born infant are examples of primary instincts. Ability 
to think, to walk, to talk are capacities—connections delayed 
in the case of the infant but nevertheless possible. 

The significance of instinctive or unlearned connections is 
not always fully appreciated by prospective manual and in¬ 
dustrial arts teachers. Whether such teachers will be happy 
or unhappy in their task depends in no small degree upon 
their understanding of the problem of the place of instincts 
and their means of control and utilization. Like teachers of 
other subjects, they will find themselves confronted by in¬ 
stincts functioning so strongly that to properly evaluate and 
utilize them for useful purposes will form one of the big 
problems of their teaching experience. Adults may choose 
to live thru Path No. 2, Fig. 29—thru reason and intellectual 
control of actions; children begin in, and only slowly grow out 
of, reactions controlled by instincts, connections largely lacking 
in reason and intelligence, Path No. 1, Fig. 29. Instincts in 
adult man may have been so subdued and placed under con¬ 
trol of intellect and reason that, as Bergson says, other ani¬ 
mals and insects are superior to man in the effectiveness of 
reactions controlled by instinct alone; in children unlearned 


63 


64 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


connections are sufficiently strong that at all times the teacher 
is called upon to exercise self-control lest at some unforeseen 
moment his own instinctive tendencies get the better of his 
judgment and reason. Whether a teacher is successful and 
happy in his teaching depends upon his recognition of the 
fact that instinctive tendencies give him the very foundation, 
the only foundation for his educational structure; that the 
stronger they are the better, provided he in turn has the 
strength to properly control and guide them into useful habits 
of behavior. 

‘‘Every acquired reaction,” James says, “is, as a rule, either 
a complication grafted upon a native reaction, or a substi¬ 
tute for a native reaction, which the same object originally 
tended to provoke. The teacher’s art consists in bringing 
about the substitution or complication, and success in the 
art presupposes a sympathetic acquaintance with the reactive 
tendencies natively there.” Attention, then, is paid to instincts 
not as ends in themselves but as means whereby we may en¬ 
graft other and more remote forms of reaction—reactions 
which racial experience has proven helpful to the individual 
or to society or both in enabling the individual or society the 
better to meet environment. 

2. The Law of Association as it applies to the Utiliza¬ 
tion of Instincts. Psychologists have given us what they 
have chosen to call a Law of Association which is so helpful 
in the interpretation of the teaching problem, not only as it 
applies to the utilization of instincts but to all other connec¬ 
tions, that it should be memorized for instant recall. It is not 
a law, as to the certainty with which the result can be pre¬ 
dicted, as are the laws of physics and chemistry, because the 
limiting conditions are not so readily determined at all times. 
It is enough of a law to be most helpful in understanding and 
setting the teaching problem. The Law: The likelihood 
that any thought or act will follow another thought or act 



INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 


65 


is in proportion to the frequency, the recency, the intensity, 
and the resulting satisfaction of previous connections, other 
things being equal. 

The significance of this law when applied to the engrafting 
of remote useful reactions upon instincts is simply that, if 
certain remote forms are wanted, they must be connected 
with original, unlearned or instinctive reaction often; with 
not too much time allowed to elapse between their connec¬ 
tion and the present; with a vitalness of connection that tends 
to burn itself in; and, withal, a feeling of zest or pleasure. 
Not all of these factors may be present at any one time, but 
the chance for future like connections will be increased just 
in proportion as they are present and strong. “Other things 
being equal” is simply another way of saying that the con¬ 
ditions, in general, must be similar if the reaction is to be 
certain as to similarity to previous reaction. If one is tired 
or worried things may not be equal were the connections pre¬ 
viously made when fatigue was not a conditioning factor, etc. 

It must have been noted that this law presupposes previous 
connection. Occasionally a student will ask how the first 
or original connections are made. This is a fair question, 
tho the answer has been given. Original connections are 
native, unlearned. The order is: first, random movement or 
spontaneity, then comes the opportunity for engrafting or 
the making of learned connections as distinguished from un¬ 
learned. The question is not only a fair one but one that 
serves well to emphasize the absolute dependence of all 
remote forms of reaction upon immediate or instinctive forms 
at some time or another. 

3. Instincts Need Control. Philosophers in times past 
have taken two widely divergent views as to the moral na¬ 
ture of instincts. There are those who thought children were 
by nature bad and that it was the part of education to make 
them good by thwarting native tendencies. There were those 



66 


TF4CHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


who believed and taught that children were by nature wholly 
good and that education consisted in letting the unlearned 
connections find expression without hindrance. 

This latter view was that of Rousseau as expressed in his 
earlier writings; the former view was that of the churchmen 
and schoolmen who preceded Rousseau. Philosophers, to¬ 
day, are generally agreed that children are by nature neither 
wholly bad nor wholly good but are to a large extent influ¬ 
enced for both good and evil by their ancestry. Mental 
activity, for example, may be utilized to think out the solu¬ 
tion of a problem of social helpfulness, or it may be used 
to think up some new way to torment teacher or fellow pupil. 
Physical activity may be directed to the work of squaring-up 
stock for a given useful project and thereby give to the 
worker certain habits of mind and body useful in enabling 
him to make a sled he wants sufficiently well to withstand the 
rough usage to which boys subject sleds, or it may be directed 
toward mischievous ends, such as cutting desks, breaking tools, 
etc. Ownership may be utilized to motivate the acquiring of 
good technic or it may find expression in common theft, etc., 
etc. 

4. Means Used to Control Connections between Instinc¬ 
tive and More Remote Connections. Of the means used to 
control instinctive connections or connections between 
instinctive reactions and reactions more remote, the follow¬ 
ing are common: 

1. Guidance or substitution, 

2. Neglect or disuse, 

3. Inhibition or punishment. 

Among other instincts are those of curiosity, physical ac¬ 
tivity, ownership, sociability, emulation, fighting, independence, 
kindness, mastery, manipulation, mental activity. Let us illus¬ 
trate means of control in two of these instincts: curiosity 
and manipulation. Any shop teacher knows that the first day 



INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 


67 


boys enter shop for the first time, if they are just natural 
they will open and slam vises, handle tools, and in general 
investigate every thing that catches eye, or ear, or hand. 
The noise is deafening and tools as well as the hands of the 
pupils are likely to be damaged. 

Are curiosity and manipulation here undesirable traits of 
character or possession ? The novice might say that they are ; 
the wise teacher, however, sees in such actions the manifesta¬ 
tion of instincts of such strength and direction that he imme¬ 
diately plans to utilize them for ends other than mere noise 
and manipulation. He does not so much regret their appear¬ 
ance, for he has plans for changing their direction toward 
useful ends; he may wish certain connections making for 
restraint, formed in the academic school room, had partially 
carried over in a manifestation of greater respect for tools 
and materials of the shop. He knows, had there been no 
curiosity upon the part of the incoming class, that the teach¬ 
er’s problem would have been a most difficult one. It might 
of course have been present without manifesting itself in 
such noisy and immediate manipulation. Sticks make poor 
performers, whether they be of wood or of flesh. 

To illustrate the application of the various means of con¬ 
trol enumerated above, let us revert to the example of the 
preceding paragraph. When the boys rush in at the begin¬ 
ning of their first shop experience they may be kept from 
breaking tools, slamming vises, and taking chances of injur¬ 
ing themselves, first, by arranging the situation so that neg¬ 
lect or disuse shall obtain. This may be done by not placing 
the tools upon the benches until pupils have assembled and 
had instruction as to behavior desired. Vises may be fastened 
so that they cannot be slammed. 

Second, the teacher may prevent their handling tools and 
vises by inhibition or punishment. This may be done by 
meeting the boys at the door and telling them before they 



68 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


enter the room that they are not to handle tools or vises. In 
any well organized school such instruction carries the impli¬ 
cation of punishment of one kind or another to come in case of 
disobedience. 

Third, mere manipulation and unnecessary noise may be 
prevented by guidance or substitution. Guidance or substitu¬ 
tion in this case may consist in providing other directions for 
exercise of curiosity and manipulation. One teacher, who has 
to teach grammar school mechanical drawing on the woodshop 
benches, prefers to leave all wood tools off the benches while 
the twelve lessons in drawing are being given. This is making 
use of neglect or disuse in so far as opportunity to exercise 
curiosity and manipulation on wood tools is concerned. Hav¬ 
ing taught respect for tools and equipment thru mechanical 
drawing, which has habits more closely allied to habits already 
formed in the regular schoolroom in matters of restraint, 
he can then connect his desired shop attitudes or habits, with 
their greater freedom of action, to the drawing habits with 
less need for dependence upon mere authority and fear of 
punishment. 

Where shopwork is not made to wait upon mechanical 
drawing, probably as easy a way as any, where the teacher 
has the confidence of the pupils thru reputation (pupils usually 
have a teacher’s measure before ever they enter his classes 
thru acquaintance with pupils who have been in his classes) 
is to call the class to order as soon as they have entered the 
shop and give instructions as to conduct. Some very good 
teachers prefer to let the pupils enter the room unhindered, 
handle the tools and slam the vises, calmly waiting the tap 
of the beginning bell when they proceed to set the house in 
order by a combination, as it were, of several of the means 
mentioned above. 

It must be recognized that certain of the means mentioned 
above are more desirable than others. In order of desirability 



INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 


69 


substitution or guidance comes first. Keep a child busy and 
he will cause little trouble thru the manifestation of unde¬ 
sirable tendencies. Keep him busy upon useful or well-directed 
activity and he not only causes little trouble but is actively 
engaged in the educative process. Neglect or disuse is second 
as a desirable means. It is negative, as it were, in that it fails 
to make use of the driving force of the instinct it seeks to 
overcome by neglect. Neglect was suggested in the illustration 
above of the drawing teacher, in that tools were not placed 
upon the benches. With reference to learning about wood 
tools thru the exercise of curiosity, there was a loss. In this 
case, of course, there was a gain thru directing curiosity and 
manipulative tendencies toward mechanical drawing tools and 
processes. Since the woodworking tools were to be intro¬ 
duced later the loss mentioned was one of time only. 

Inhibition and punishment (punishment of any kind, such 
as removal of privileges as well as corporal punishment) should 
be used as a last resort, in general. Appeal to au¬ 
thority (that is what inhibition and punishment amount 
to) may be maintained successfully for short and infrequent 
intervals, such, for example, as the shop teacher’s telling the 
entering class to leave the tools and vises alone, that they 
would be given opportunity to learn all about them and manip¬ 
ulate them in time. Inhibition and punishment are costly 
and uncertain means for they violate resulting satisfaction, 
the most important factor in the working of the law of associa¬ 
tion. To violate resulting satisfaction means that greater ap¬ 
peal must be made to frequency and other operating factors 
in the law of association to compensate for this loss. The 
excessive strength of the factor of resulting satisfaction is 
such that very many repetitions will be required as a rule to 
counteract its loss. 

For example, it is a matter of common observation that a 
child will secure a stronger or more lasting connection thru 





70 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


doing a thing once when it is connected with something in¬ 
stinctively pleasant than thru doing the same thing a 
dozen times when the thing is not connected with something 
intrinsically interesting but which is done thru fear of punish¬ 
ment of one kind or another. Connections made thru authority 
with fear of punishment as the incentive rather than resulting 
satisfaction are uncertain, for the moment authority is re¬ 
moved the chances for a repeat are unfavorable. 

5. Conflict of Aims in Utilizing Instincts. As in teach¬ 
ing other subjects, so in teaching manual and industrial arts 
it is not uncommon to find flagrant violations of the principles 
of good teaching, as indicated in the law of association applied 
to instinctive connections. Frequently, however, such viola¬ 
tions are not the result of lack of knowledge upon the part 
of the teacher but rather the result of the necessity for having 
to choose between conflicting aims, neither solution being 
possible without a sacrifice. For example, certain teachers 
recommend the making of models by the teacher and the 
placing of these about the walls of the shop in orderly se¬ 
quence. The aim here is to make for clearness of thinking 
upon the part of the pupil. 

There is a question, however, as to whether the gain in 
clearness of thinking thru the pupil’s being able to see the 
year’s work at a glance compensates for the loss of interest 
thru the immediate unfolding of the work of the year and the 
consequent destruction of curiosity as to what comes next, an 
important factor in keeping the pupil keyed-up to the work 
in hand. Before the work of any teacher is criticised or con¬ 
demned for violating certain factors of the law of association 
as it has to do with the utilization of instincts, the observer 
should make certain the violation is not justifiable thru extra 
values obtained thru emphasizing other . conflicting factors. 
Keeping a pupil after hours as a punishment for not making 
certain connections desired in school hours may violate the 



INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 


71 


law as to resulting satisfaction thru connection in the mind 
of the pupil of ideas of dissatisfaction with the work of the 
school, a connection not to be desired. 

On the other hand, if such punishment serves to make 
the pupil take greater satisfaction in making the proper con¬ 
nections during school hours, it may have justified itself. At 
its best, of course, it is but a makeshift justifiable only with 
the few who are not subject to reasonable teaching situations. 
A proper setting of teaching conditions should make for re¬ 
sulting satisfaction upon the part of the class as a whole 
with but few exceptions. 

6. Effect of Delayed Capacities. The teacher of manual 
or industrial arts needs but to recall his own experiences to be 
made aware of the fact that various capacities mature or 
become available gradually. Unfortunately, many adults 
have lost the ability to see themselves as they were as children 
at various stages of development. That teacher of manual 
arts who seeks to emphasize extreme accuracy and skill in 
primary grades evidently has failed to recall that the capacity 
to appreciate a need for a high degree of accuracy and skill 
is not likely to manifest itself until children have had more 
experience of a random character. Then, too, the capacity 
to execute with skill is not present with small children, espe¬ 
cially the capacity to execute fine movements. The teacher of 
industrial arts who seeks to make mechanics of mere children 
finds this a difficult problem. Children of early grammar 
grades are lacking in capacity to execute in materials, to use 
mechanical judgment, and in ability, as a rule, to appreciate 
needs. 

If the teacher must arrange his work so that pupils are not 
required to make use of capacities before they manifest them¬ 
selves normally, he must also see that capacities are con¬ 
sidered when they do manifest themselves. The teacher of 
manual arts who is so interested in expressional manual arts 



72 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


that he or she overlooks the fact that there comes a time 
when children become interested in, feel a need for, and are 
capable of executing work according to conventional methods 
of procedure,—such a teacher is pedagogically as inefficient as 
the one who forces experiences before they may be had with 
economy of effort. Again, that teacher who fails to so plan 
his work that pupils may have opportunity to exercise reason 
and judgment in the execution of original work because he 
has found such a capacity rather weak in earlier years, is not 
fully appreciative of teaching opportunities. 

Not infrequently there will be a conflict of instinct and 
capacity. The desire of grammar school pupils to make large 
and intricately constructed pieces of funiture is an example 
of the instinct of ownership running counter to capacity to 
manipulate tools and materials. The problem here is one of 
directing the instinct of ownership toward simpler things until 
capacity to execute the more difficult things comes to pass. 

A not uncommon question for debate is as to whether chil¬ 
dren should work upon projects intended for home use or on 
projects intended for the school. One offers the instinct of 
ownership, another offers the group or social instinct. The 
problem usually resolves itself into a question not of which 
is better, but rather which must take precedence because 
stronger. There are certain stages in development when the 
instinct of individual ownership is stronger, other stages when 
it is not a question with the pupil of mine alone but of the 
family and home. Pride in things civic comes later, and often 
needs just a little forcing to make it appear at all strongly. 
Good teaching will recognize each of these instincts as legiti¬ 
mate means of motivating work, not as ends in themselves 
but as means of giving to the pupil experiences of value at 
appropriate periods in their development as judged by society. 

7. The Teacher’s Problem. This, then, is the teacher’s 
problem: to take what he finds nature and nurture have pro- 




INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 


73 


vided his pupils, when he gets them, and to strive to engraft 
other remote forms of useful habits of behavior, as he has 
time, and as the natural development of his pupils will permit. 

8. Summary. Instincts are unlearned connections ; capa¬ 
cities are connections possible but not in use. Whether a 
teacher will be happy in his task depends, in no small degree, 
upon his understanding of the place of instincts and the means 
of utilizing them for useful purposes. Attention is paid to 
instincts not as ends in themselves but as means whereby 
we may engraft other and more remote forms of reaction, 
forms which society has determined are good for the individual 
in preparing him to become a member of its body. 

The law of association applies to the utilization of instincts 
for educational purposes. If we want a pupil to take interest 
in a remote connection, one not natively interesting, we must 
make connections between some activity natively interesting 
and the remote activity with frequency, recency, intensity. 
The resulting satisfaction inherent in the native reaction will 
tend to become attached to the remote reaction. 

Instincts need control for they are not always sure guides. 
Means used to control instincts are guidance or substitution, 
neglect or disuse, inhibition or punishment, enumerated in the 
order of desirability. 

Not infrequently the teacher in his attempts to utilize in¬ 
stincts as means of motivating work finds that the utilization of 
one instinct conflicts with that of another. In such cases, 
all that can be done is to weigh the resulting values one against 
the other and choose the one giving the greater returns. 

A good teacher will recognize that certain capacities are 
delayed and will so plan his work that abilities shall not be 
called upon until their time for normal appearance. To do 
otherwise, is to demand unnecessary strain. On the other 
hand, work should be so planned that instincts will be placed 
at work as soon as capacity has matured; to do otherwise is 



74 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


to neglect valued assistance. In the conflict between instinct 
in one direction and lack of capacity in another, the teacher 
will favor the lacking capacity by directing the instinct toward 
more reasonable reactions. 

The teacher’s problem is one of taking the child as he finds 
nature and nurture have prepared him, then striving to en¬ 
graft upon these habits other useful habits of behavior such 
as the race has determined are good for the child in enabling 
him the better to meet his environment. 


Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapter III. 

James: Talks to Teachers, Chapters III, VII. 

Class Discussion: 

1. Define instinct. Define capacity. What has education to do 
with these? 

2. Thorndike mentions the following instincts: Mental ac¬ 
tivity, curio c ity, physical activity, manipulation, collecting, 
ownership, sociability, emulation, kindness, pugnacity, mas¬ 
tery, independence, defiance. Illustrate. 

3. If instincts are not to be neglected, are they always sure 
guides? Illustrate. 

4. Thorndike mentions the following capacities: Impression, 
expression, connection, selection, analysis. Also the fol¬ 
lowing complexes: Management of things, of men, of con¬ 
crete ideas, of abstract ideas and symbols, self control, 
energy, precision, thoroness, originality, co-operation, leader¬ 
ship, self-denial, self-reliance, refinement, sympathy. Illus¬ 
trate. 

5. What is meant by self activity? What is meant by the 
expression “directed self-activity, not self-directed activ¬ 
ity?” What part has the teacher to play in each? 

6. Are you agreed that “activities of neglect, inhibition, and 
guidance are even more important than activities of impul¬ 
sion”? Would you vary your answer were a distinction to 
be made between elementary education and advanced col¬ 
lege? Are you agreed “that success is in a great measure 
not making failures”? 

7. State the mearic used to control instincts, and differentiate 
as to desirability. 




CHAPTER V 

APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF APPERCEPTION TO MANUAL 
AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHING 

1. Apperception. Apperception, Professor James tells 
us, is a very big word for a very simple fact. As one writer 
states, “It means simply that if you want to go somewhere you 
must start from where you are.” It is the process of assimilat¬ 
ing new ideas and habits by relating them to old ideas and 
habits. 

Simple as this is in statement, it is not so simple when we 
strive to apply it. The teacher of design who gathers up all 
the books in the library relating to a problem in design for 
fear his pupils may go to them for suggestions evidently does 
not understand its meaning. Rather, that teacher understands 
it who keeps in a filing cabinet mounted prints of every thing 
good bearing upon that particular problem, let it be a piece 
of pottery, a piece of furniture, or anything else, and encour¬ 
ages his pupils to study such designs before making an attack. 
Design is nothing more nor less than combining old elements 
in new ways—even the Creator had the elements out of which 
to create worlds, we are told. There is danger of copying—■ 
this however, is less where pupils are properly taught than 
where they are asked to make bricks without straw, as it were. 
There must be in the minds of the pupils design elements be¬ 
fore designs can be made. If these are not there they must 
be got there thru a relating of new ideas to present ideas, or 
new feelings to present feelings. 

“What anyone thinks, or feels or does on any occasion de¬ 
pends upon what he has thought or felt or done in the past.” 
If a boy, operating a universal saw in a wood shop, should 
be told to remove the guard, he would, without doubt, act at 
once and as desired. If the same instruction were to be given 


75 


76 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


in some foreign language, he would probably be non-plussed. 
To get him to react as desired it would be necessary to begin 
with ideas that were known to him and to connect up these 
new sounds with those ideas before appropriate reaction could 
be secured. 

2. The Learning Process. Froebel, long ago, gave the 
following order which is recognized today as a complete state¬ 
ment for ideal method: (1) spontaneity, (2) instruction, 
(3) creative effort. Note the order. Compare this order 
with that of Path No. 2, Fig. 29. 

Not only is Froebel’s order characteristic of the small arc 
representing any one stage of child activity, but it is also 
applicable to that larger arc covering the period from birth 
to manhood. Both organization and method of manual arts 
teaching are affected by these facts. Note the following: 

“1-6 Years—Period of spontaneity characterized by excess of 
feeling, expressed thru motor.” 

Implication—little need for formal school instruction. 

“6-12 Years—Period of spontaneity characterized by excess of feel¬ 
ing, expressed thru language, as reading, writing, arithmetic, 
spelling.” 

Implication—manual arts in the main will be used as a 
means of teaching other subjects—expressional and illustra¬ 
tive. Technical manual arts begins but is minor. 

“12-18 Years, Grades VI, thru H. S.—Period of knowledge, scien¬ 
tific reasoning, characterized by excess of effort, expression 
thru both motor and language.” 

Implication—emphasis upon technical manual arts, a study 
of the science or conventions together with plenty of oppor¬ 
tunity for application in shop. 

“18—Period of will, creative effort plus interest; expression thru 
language and motor, in most men thru motor.” 

Implication—trade training, automatic habit formation, 
emphasis upon skill. 

3. The Law of Association Applicable to the Learning 
Process. The law of association indicates clearly the prob¬ 
lem of making effective the process of connecting up new 
ideas or new habits with old ideas or habits. Situations must 
be set so that the pupil will make the desired connections with 
frequency, recency, intensity, and with resulting satisfaction. 



PRINCIPLE OF APPERCEPTION 


77 


If we want a boy to acquire skill in the making of a mortise- 
and-tenon joint, for example, we can do so by having him 
make a number of joints of the same kind, frequently. This 
alone, however, may not be sufficient; if he sees no need for 
such activity, frequency may be more than offset thru lack of 
resulting satisfaction. Let him make his duplication in the 
form of a taboret or some other object he wants, and fre¬ 
quency combined with resulting satisfaction, and probably in¬ 
tensity, will result in the skill desired by the instructor. 

4. Some Seeming Violations of the Principle of Apper¬ 
ception. If the principle of apperception means anything, 
it means from the simple to the complex. In older manual 
training practice this was taken to mean that a series of joints, 
parts, must be made before the application, whole, could be 
made. Consequently we had planing exercises, sawing exer¬ 
cises, chiseling exercises, and joints galore before a single 
application could be made. We had this same counterpart in 
academic practice—the alphabet with various sound combina¬ 
tions used to be taught before any reading would be allowed. 
Similarity in writing, certain abstract and detached strokes 
had to be mastered before any letters or words could be 
written. The fallacy of all such practice lies in the assump¬ 
tion that it is impossible to get wholes of sufficient simplicity 
that they may be taught as wholes in the very beginning. Cer¬ 
tain wholes in shopwork are easier to construct than certain 
parts. A simple one-piece key-rack is much easier to con¬ 
struct than a dovetail joint, a part of a table or cabinet. The 
chief weakness, however, lies not so much in the exercise as 
an exercise as in the fact that there is not the resulting satisfac¬ 
tion that is carried with a whole, a something of use, and 
that the making of certain parts is not always, nor even often, 
the same thing as making these parts in a whole. 

On the other hand, if exercises are not always necessary 
precursors of application, there are too many supervisors who 



78 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


have a notion that therefore, they are never permissible or 
advisable. To be sure, we should, as a general proposition, 
put things together as we expect to have them put together 
later. For example, that teacher who had his boys square up 
edges and ends on a sleeve board for the sake of giving addi¬ 
tional practice in squaring up stock, when these edges and 
ends were to be cut off in making the curves, need hardly be 
surprised to find these boys going thru this needless operation 
when later they are called upon to make sleeve boards—they 
were taught such associations, and by the workings of the 
law of association, will tend to repeat such associations un¬ 
less something very intense has been done to break such con¬ 
nections. To say that exercises are always bad is hardly 
wise. The fact that attention can be centered upon one diffi¬ 
culty at a time, and that both time and valuable material are 
often saved by the preliminary exercise, makes its use well 
worth while, once the pupil has had enough simpler experience, 
simpler wholes, to have been forced to a feeling of need for 
such preliminary exercises. While a child may learn to read 
readily by means of the word-sentence method there comes a 
time when the alphabet should be taught. A fourth grade 
girl could not locate a desired word in the dictionary because 
she had never been taught the sequence of the letters of the 
afphabet, tho she could read beautifully. 

5. Logical Sequence. While the aim should always be 
from the simple to the complex, it should be understood that 
many times one process is as difficult to master as another. 
Whether, for example, accurate sawing to a line should come 
before accurate planing to a line is not so much a matter of 
relative difficultness—one is about as difficult as the other; 
the essential thing in such cases is to so plan that one difficult 
thing will have time to become assimilated before another is 
introduced. In such cases one can afford to be liberal as to 
which process shall be taught first. When, however, it becomes 




PRINCIPLE OF APPERCEPTION 


79 


a matter of free sawing parallel to a line, as when planing 
is to be done afterward, there is no question but that such 
free sawing should come before the more accurate sawing 
to a line. 

Manual training and industrial arts teachers are frequently 
confronted today with the demand upon the part of superin¬ 
tendents that they conduct their work upon the basis of project 



Fig. 8. Cutting-off Jig. 

Courtesy of E. E. MacNary, Springfield, Mass. 


or problem, or job rather than process arrangement. So long 
as freedom of choice as to project is allowed, it is possible 
to maintain orderly arrangement of .processes, from the sim¬ 
ple to the complex, without violating any of the controlling 
factors in the working of the law of association as applied 
to apperception, or to the learning process. Those superin¬ 
tendents, however, who arbitrarily select projects and insist 
that the manual training or industrial arts teacher have his 
boys execute the same forthwith, are, to say the least, not 
dealing fairly with the teaching of manual or industrial arts. 
Manual and industrial arts teaching is governed by identically 
the same laws as govern the teaching of other subjects. It 
is doubly important that conditions be favorable for the proper 






80 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 



setting of the teaching problem in manual and industrial arts 
for manual and industrial arts deal with such resisting mate¬ 
rials that violation of the law of association must mean defeat 
of a nature that cannot be concealed from those who know 
what the proper results should have been. A superintendent 

would hardly ask a beginning 
Latin class to attempt to trans¬ 
late Virgil or Cicero, yet he not 
infrequently demands that a 
beginning manual training or 
industrial arts class build pre¬ 
tentious pieces of apparatus be¬ 
fore they have any basis in 
technical understanding or well 
controlled muscular habits for 
such activities. 

The discussion of the preced¬ 
ing paragraph is based upon 
the supposition that the work 
is organized to develop techni¬ 
cal insight and mechanical skill 
of hand. It is possible by 
means of jigs, Figs. 8, 9 and 
10, to so simplify requirements 
for skill of hand and technical 
understanding that mere chil¬ 
dren can be got to produce 
quite imposing pieces of work. 
School superintendents not 
infrequently confuse educa¬ 
tional values obtained from 
this type of work with those of that type intended to 
develop skill of hand. The use of jigs is legitimate and the 
experience gained has value. It is, however, no adequate 


Fig. 9. End View of Planing 
Jig. Courtesy of E. E. Mac- 
Nary, Springfield, Mass. 





PRINCIPLE OF APPERCEPTION 


81 


substitute for those values which come thru handwork 
without the excessive use of jigs. The relative value of the 
two types of training has been touched upon in the chapter 
on industrial education. 



Fig. 10. Boring Jig. Courtesy of E. E. MacNary, Springfield, Mass. 


Rewards, as has been said, are commensurate with educa¬ 
tional investment. If the pupil makes a hurried investment 
in skill thru the use of jigs, he will not be able to realize upon 
this investment as will the pupil who makes the more expen¬ 
sive investment, as to time and energy, in the development 
of skill in intricate mental and muscular coordinations. A 
machine tender or a mechanic of a mill wherein the work 
requires small skill thru the use of jigs does not receive a 
remuneration equal to that of the mechanic on the job wherein 




82 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


wide skill or muscular coordination is required. This latter 
skill must, of course, be marketable. Skill for skill’s sake is 
of small value. It must also be a skill not capable of ready 
duplication by machine processes. Whether the work is pro¬ 
duction by jigs or production by skill of hand, attention must 
be paid in each to orderly introduction or sequence of subject- 
matter. Sequences when the work is done by the use of jigs 
should not be confused with necessary sequences when the 
work is to be done thru development of skill of hand in free 
manipulation of tools. The value of jigs as an economic factor 
in production is not to be questioned, of course; and their use 
in the school course for purposes of attaining certain objectives, 
such as the giving of information about, and experience in 
quantity production, must be recognized, also, their use as a 
preliminary to attainments of skill of hand, as a means of 
setting up standards and feelings for proper muscular co-ordi¬ 
nations must be considered. 

6. Drill or Frequency as an Essential Factor in Assimila¬ 
tion. Teachers of technical work in the grammar grades 
are prone to forget that frequency is an important element 
in the extent to which a new connection in ideas or action 
will become assimilated. This, no doubt, is due to the excess 
of motive or impulsion upon the part of young pupils—the 
intense desire to be undertaking something new. It is no 
uncommon thing for a grade school boy to have had all the 
fundamental tool operations taught him, followed by such 
joints as dado, cross-lap, glue, mortise-and-tenon, etc., in the 
making of large pieces of furniture. There are always the 
exceptions, of course, but in all probability not fifty per cent 
of a class having but two and one-half hours or less per week 
will have had sufficient repetition, arranged, of course, to 
give resulting satisfaction, to have mastered such joints so 
that the high school teacher can presuppose such mastery and 
plan his work accordingly. 



PRINCIPLE OF APPERCEPTION 


83 


7. Summary. Apperception is the process of assimilat¬ 
ing new ideas and new habits by relating them to old ideas 
and habits. “What one thinks or feels or does depends upon 
what one has thought or felt or done in the past.” 

Froebel long ago gave the order of procedure to be followed 
in the learning process which order is recognized today as a 
complete statement for proper method where time is available 
for the highest development of the individual: (1) spontaneity, 
(2) instruction, (3) creative effort. This order is charac¬ 
teristic of the large arc covering the period from birth to 
manhood as well as the smaller arc representing any one 
stage of development. 

The law of association applies to the learning process, for 
assimilation is nothing more nor less than association—associa¬ 
tion of new ideas with old or new habits with old. 

If the principle of apperception means anything, it 
means from the simple to the complex. This has been taken 
to mean that abstract exercises must always precede projects 
or completed wholes. Experience has shown that children 
get greater satisfaction thru making projects than thru making 
exercises. Elementary manual and industrial arts should 
consist of project work rather than exercise. This can be 
accomplished without violating the principle of apperception; 
it is perfectly possible to have projects so simple that they 
may be made without preliminary exercises. On the other 
hand, the difficulties children meet in dealing with simple 
projects serve to cause them to see the need for preliminary 
exercises for certain advanced project work. When this situa¬ 
tion obtains, exercises are legitimate and pedagogically proper. 

Application of the principle of apperception implies atten¬ 
tion to proper sequence. Project sequence instead of process 
sequence may serve as a basis of organization of subject- 
matter provided choice of project or choice of time for intro¬ 
ducing any required project in the course is left to the teacher 



84 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


or supervisor of the shop or drafting work. When this is 
done the teacher or supervisor may preserve necessary se¬ 
quence so that the principle of apperception may not be violated 
thru having to introduce the children to intricate processes 
before they have built up any adequate basis in past ex¬ 
perience for assimilation. Sequence, where jigs are employed 
should not be confused with sequence where dependence is 
placed upon skill of hand. 

Drill is an essential factor in assimilation. Drill is the fre¬ 
quency factor mentioned in the law of association. In all 
drill it should be remembered that frequency so arranged as 
to be accompanied by a feeling of satisfaction is very much 
more effective than drill not so accompanied. 


Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapter IV. 
James: Talks to Teachers, Chapter XIV. 


Class Discussion: 

1. Define apperception. 

2. State the law of association. 

3. From observations state how a teacher prepared the minds 
of the pupils for a new idea which he desired they should 
acquire. 

4. From observations state how a teacher prepared the bodies 
of the pupils for a new habit in muscular coordination in 
constructive work. 

5. What suggestions have you for a better or more efficient 
presentation of the problems of 3 and 4? 

6. Discuss the application of the principle of apperception to 
the teaching of design. 

7. “From the simple to the complex.” How do you explain 
the fact that we begin with wholes rather than with parts 
in our teaching. For example, in reading we teach words 
and sentences before we teach the alphabet. In woodwork 
we teach pupils to make bread-boards, etc., rather than 
abstract planing- and sawing- and ioint exercises. 

8. Discuss: “To proceed to the unknown is as important as 
from the known.” Make an application to some manual 
arts problem. 



CHAPTER VI 

INTEREST AND ATTENTION 


1. Interest and Attention the Indispensable Basis of 
Every Method of Education. The place of interest in edu¬ 
cation has caused no small amount of debate among educators 
and of confusion upon the part of the young teacher. Most 
of the lack of agreement has come about thru a lack of agree¬ 
ment as to what is meant by the term interest. For the sake 
of clearness we may assume that interest and attention are 
one and the same thing; that we are in this sense always inter¬ 
ested in what we attend to. The boy who cuts the grass 
when he doesn’t want to do so, because he knows a whipping 
will follow his neglect, is interested in what he is doing— 
interested to the extent that resulting satisfaction is greater 
in doing the unpleasant task than it would be in taking the 
whipping. The distinction we debate about, then, is not one 
of interest or lack of interest, but interest or attention with 
or without a feeling of intrinsic desire or zest. If we attend 
to a thing we must be interested in that thing. 

Now mental assimilation is a matter of consciousness. 
Consciousness and attention are one. So long as we are 
conscious we are attending to some one thing or another. 
The problem of education is the problem of getting the stu¬ 
dent to attend, to take interest in the thing that society thru 
the school and the teacher has determined is good for the 
student in preparing him for future life as an individual and 
a citizen. 

Unfortunately, experiences which society feels the child 
ought to have are not always such that the child fully appre¬ 
ciates their need, and therefore they do not have for him a 
feeling of zest in their accomplishment. When a child is 


85 


86 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


forced to do a thing for which he sees no need, he is, without 
doubt, making connections which society demands, but mak¬ 
ing them, as he does, with resulting satisfaction only in that 
it avoids punishment, the moment the fear and authority are 
removed, such connections will, to say the least, be weaker 
than those made with an accompanying feeling of zest and 
desire. 

2. The Law of Association Applied to Interest and At¬ 
tention. The educator’s problem consists in hitching or 
engrafting reactions not immediately possessed of a feeling of 
zest, which reaction society has determined are helpful for the 
individual in enabling him the better to meet his environment, 
upon reactions which are immediately possessed of a feeling 
of zest. The law of association, then, may be modified to 
read: The likelihood that an individual will be interested in, 
or pay attention to, or have a feeling of zest in, a thing or act 
is in proportion to the frequency, recency, intensity and result¬ 
ing satisfaction of previous connections between that thing 
or act and some thing or act which is natively possessed of a 
feeling of zest. 

A grade school boy is not normally possessed of a feeling 
of zest in the making of working drawings. Let him be in¬ 
formed that only as he makes preliminary working drawings 
for certain pieces of woodwork, can he be allowed to attempt 
such pieces of woodwork, and the beginnings of a practical 
application of the above rule are being made. A high school 
boy has a desire to make a library table. The instructor wishes 
him to acquire tool technic in the making of a mortise-and- 
tenon joint. The teacher can get such a boy to make a pre¬ 
liminary mortise-and-tenon joint with a feeling of zest by 
associating in the mind of the boy the idea of the necessity 
for complete mastery of technic of the mortise-and-tenon 
joint as an aid the better to make the t°ble. 

3. Feeling of Zest Versus Effort. The fact that a thing 



INTEREST AND ATTENTION 


87 


is difficult does not of necessity mean that its accomplish¬ 
ment may not be accompanied by a feeling of zest; nor does 
the fact that a thing is easy mean that a feeling of zest must 
be present. We like to do those things we can do well— 
those things in which there is a growing skill, a feeling of 
mastery—not so hard as to discourage, and not too easy. 

The wise teacher will not seek to give easy experiences to 
his pupils under the mistaken notion that thereby he makes 
possible feeling of zest, nor, on the other hand, will he allow 
his pupils to plunge into deep waters of effort because they 
have an immediate interest in some thing manifestly too diffi¬ 
cult for them at that stage of development. For example, 
ask a beginning class in woodwork what they would like to 
make, and not uncommon answers are: library table, hall 
clock, desk, etc. A good teacher will not ridicule such desires, 
but will utilize them as a means of attaching a feeling of zest 
or interest or attention to the simpler beginning projects by 
explaining that the desires are all right but that they will 
have to wait awhile until greater skill and understanding can 
be developed. This, he may explain, is to be got thru the 
making of simpler projects, which he will then introduce. 

Prof. Thorndike's practical advice: “Get the right things 
done at any cost—but get them done with as little inhibition 
and strain as possible,” is good advice to those advocates of 
a pedagogy so soft that it encourages pupils never to feel 
called upon to do anything which involves effort and strain, 
or to do some things thru a sense of duty, the doing of which 
is not immediately possessed of a feeling of zest. It is also 
good advice for those who ridicule the effort to attach a feel¬ 
ing of zest to tasks not immediately so possessed thru associa¬ 
tion of these tasks with activities or ideas natively so possessed 
—for those who glorify effort or strain as a discipline. 

4. Mental Assimilation a Matter of Consciousness. In 



88 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


a preceding section of this discussion the statement was made 
that mental assimilation was a matter of consciousness—this 
by Professor John Dewey. A proper understanding of this 
is necessary if those who advocate the doctrine of interest, 
or feeling of zest, as a necessary basis in every method of 
education are not to be confused in their practice and con¬ 
founded by their adversaries. 

It is possible to sugar coat certain mean tasting medicines 
and give these to children without their being made aware 
of the mean taste, only the sugary taste, and still secure a 
desired medicinal reaction. It is possible to have children 
develop certain useful muscular reactions under the guise of 
play. When it comes to a matter of connections involving 
mind or intelligence it is impossible to make such connections 
without the child’s being aware of what is going on. For 
example, a boy wants a sled; society thru the school is not 
particularly concerned with the furnishing of a sled for that 
boy, or any other boy—that is the business of the home and 
the parent. Society, however, does want that boy to acquire 
certain useful industrial habits, among other things. It finds 
it can have the boy acquire these thru making the sled, and 
acquire them easier, or with less strain than thru a set of 
abstract exercises. What is the problem?—Not one of con¬ 
cealing from the boy a knowledge of the technical processes 
involved, but eminently one of fixing his attention upon them. 
So far as the boy is concerned this knowledge of correct 
methods of procedure is merely a means to an end—a means 
of securing a well-made sled. So far as society is concerned 
the sled is a means to another end—the acquiring on the boy’s 
part of useful knowledge and habits. The sled was a means 
of motivating the technical work thru creating a feeling of 
need for technical knowledge and skill. 

Some teachers are even frank enough to explain to begin¬ 
ning classes just what the situation is—a cooperative plan 



INTEREST AND ATTENTION 


89 


whereby both society and boy may accomplish their 1 aims 
and ends—one, the making of a more useful citizen, and the 
other, the sled. Mental assimilation here is a matter of con¬ 
sciousness upon the part of the boy. Contrast this with that 
type of experience wherein boys are given no instruction in 
proper technical methods of procedure but by some miracle 
are supposed to assimilate it unconsciously. It is not assimi¬ 
lated unless attention is centered upon it. This is the reason 
it is unwise to claim development of technical understanding 
and skill in expressional and illustrative manual arts where at¬ 
tention is so exclusively centered upon the idea to be expressed 
and not upon tool technic. 

5. Abstract Exercises Versus Useful Projects. In sec¬ 
tions 3 and 4 of Chapter V there was discussed the place of 
the abstract exercise and the useful project in manual arts 
teaching. The strength of an exercise lies in its permitting 
concentration of attention. Its weakness lies in its inability 
to secure an accompanying feeling of zest when required 
before the pupil has had any opportunity to try himself out 
and thus discover the need for such exercises as a prelimi¬ 
nary to application. 

The weakness of a series of abstract exercises not fol¬ 
lowed by application in a real project lies in the fact that 
connections formed in dealing with parts cannot be substi¬ 
tuted wholly for connections formed in dealing with those 
parts in a whole. For example, we may give mature students 
a course in carpentry joint-making and hold their attention— 
even securing a feeling of zest. Valuable as this experience 
may be as a preparation it cannot take the place of the appli¬ 
cation of these joints in a completed carpentry project, such 
as a house or barn. 

The question, then, is not one of abstract exercises versus 
useful project, for the answer is evidently abstract exercise 
and useful project. The question really is one as to the appro- 



90 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


priate time or place of introducing the exercise so that it 
may take on a feeling of zest; this time is certainly after the 
pupil has had enough experience of a simpler kind to cause 
him to have a feeling of real need for such exercises as a 
preliminary to the making of his useful project. 

6. Drill and the Feeling of Zest. By the law of associa¬ 
tion repetition or frequency is an essential factor in fixing 
connections, in other words, drill. No little confusion exists 
as to the merits of drill. One educator conducts experiments 
in spelling wherein one group of students is drilled and an¬ 
other group is not formally drilled, and proves to his satis¬ 
faction that drill or frequency is of no value. An examination 
of the facts in the situation would probably show that the 
deciding factor was not frequency so much as resulting sat¬ 
isfaction. While repetition or frequency has value always in 
fixing connections it has its greatest value only when accom¬ 
panied by a feeling of real need and a feeling of zest and 
resulting satisfaction. A few connections with intense re¬ 
sulting satisfaction will fix those connections better than a 
very large number of repetitions or frequencies not so accom¬ 
panied. 

For example, a certain instructor decided that he wanted 
to develop skill in accurate sawing. He took as one of his 
earliest problems in the course what he chose to call a count¬ 
ing board. Now, his pedagogy in choosing the counting 
board, or a so-called useful project, was all right. He also 
conceived the idea that, if skill in sawing was to be developed, 
there must be repetition or drill, so he planned his stock that 
the boy would make a rather large number of preliminary saw 
cuts before making the final cut, Fig. 11. By every element 
of logical reasoning each cut should have been better made 
than the preceding, and the last cut the best of all. In actual 
teaching practice, the beginner made the first cuts with a 
certain degree, or lack of degree of accuracy, but as a rule 




INTEREST AND ATTENTION 


91 


the cuts got worse instead of better. Noting this fact, not 
a few boys exercised their reasoning “faculty” and skipped 
the intermediate cuts making the final cut without further 
delay. What was the trouble? As a Normal school problem, 
this logical analysis and presentation of the problem would be 



found to work. It didn’t work as a beginning problem in 
seventh grade woodwork because these boys had not enough 
experience to have developed a feeling of real need for the 
preliminary sawings, and most of all, these preliminary saw¬ 
ings interfered with getting at the game board, which was 
the thing that interested them. 

Should there be drill, or frequency, in the making of con¬ 
nections desired? Yes, but so planned that it has meaning. 
Eight abstract dado joints should not be made in an eighth 
grade. One preliminary joint can be made to function here, 
but, after that, let the repetition be made in the form of a 
taboret, a bookshelf, etc.—some project wherein the boy will 
constantly feel the need for his best effort on each joint. 
Engineering schools, even, are abandoning long continued 
series of abstract exercises, for even mature men do better 
where there is some incentive for drill other than the mere 
acquiring of efficiency. 

7. Logical Arrangement of Subject-Matter Versus Psy- 



92 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


chological Development of the Individual. The discussion 
of the section just preceding should have developed the idea 
that logical arrangement of subject-matter does not always 
harmonize with the developing nature of children. In such 
cases there are often found two extremes in educational 
practice—one, which disregards logical arrangement of sub¬ 
ject-matter in its eagerness to gratify every native tendency 
of children; the other extreme is that which breaks children 
by inflexible authority until they fit into this logical arrange¬ 
ment of subject-matter. 

Good pedagogy recognizes this conflict in aims of society 
and native interests of children and so plans that it may be¬ 
gin with emphasis on the latter and by associations transfer 
these native interests to those things society demands of an 
educated individual. Society determines what shall be taught; 
child nature, psychology, determines how this shall be taught. 

8. Summary. It has been said that interest is the indis¬ 
pensable basis for every method of education. For the sake 
of clearness we may assume that interest and attention are 
one and the same thing. An individual, then, is always inter¬ 
ested in anything to which he attends or of which he is defi¬ 
nitely conscious. Interest or attention may be accompanied 
by a feeling of zest or desire, or it may not; it is to this 
feeling of zest we refer when we speak of interest in a popu¬ 
lar sense, as in the statement above. 

The problem of education is one of getting children to 
attend, to take interest in the things society, thru the school, 
thinks best for the pupil in preparing him to meet environment, 
and to do so with an accompanying feeling of zest. The law 
of association makes clear how this problem is to be solved 
when we apply it as was designated in the chapter on instincts 
just preceding. The likelihood that any remote reaction will 
be possessed of a feeling of zest is in proportion to the re¬ 
cency, the frequency, the intensity, and the resulting satis- 



INTEREST AND ATTENTION 


93 


faction of connections made between the remote reaction and 
reactions immediately or natively possessed of a feeling of 
zest. 

Not infrequently, ease of accomplishment is confused with 
feeling of zest, and effort with its lack. The fact that a thing 
is difficult does not of necessity mean that its accomplishment 
may not be accompanied by a feeling of zest; nor does the 
fact that a thing is easy of accomplishment mean that a feel¬ 
ing of zest must be present. A wise teacher will not seek 
to give easy experiences under the impression that in so doing 
he makes possible, of necessity, a feeling of zest upon the 
part of the pupils. Neither will he shun assigning difficult 
tasks, when those tasks are necessary, just because, for the 
time being, they happen to be lacking in feeling of zest. 
Thorndike’s practical advice: “Get the right things done at 
any cost, but get them done with as little inhibition and strain 
as possible” is good for extremists who glory in a soft peda¬ 
gogy which never asks children to attack difficult problems 
as well as for those who glory in effort for effort’s sake.' 

Certain muscular habits may be secured without the child’s 
being conscious of what is going on; in the case of mental 
habits there can be no assimilation without consciousness or 
attention upon the part of the pupil. This means that the 
teacher in his attempts to attach a feeling of zest to some 
remote reaction by associating it with some reaction immedi¬ 
ately possessed of a feeling of zest cannot do so without at 
some time and in some way fixing the pupil’s attention upon 
the remote reaction. The teacher’s effort should be not one 
of concealing the remote reaction desired of the pupil by 
society, but rather one of getting him to attend to the fixing 
of the habits of the remote reaction as means, so far as the 
pupil is concerned at this time, of securing the thing in which 
the pupil is intrinsically interested. In such a manner, atten¬ 
tion may be fixed upon the making of abstract exercises pre- 



94 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


paratory to application in projects. Projects, however, of 
a simpler nature must precede this latter experience else the 
pupil has no basis for developing a feeling of need for the 
exercise. 

Drill is an essential factor in fixing connections. An erro¬ 
neous conception that drill cannot be accompanied by a feeling 
of zest is not uncommon. It is possible to so attach duplica¬ 
tion of process to reactions natively possessed of a feeling of 
zest that drill secures values which come thru repetition and 
thru accompanying feeling of satisfaction. Drill not so accom¬ 
panied, depending merely upon frequency or repetition, very 
largely defeats its own ends. Eight joints of a given kind 
in a taboret a boy wants are better than eight abstract exer¬ 
cises repeated as so much drill. 

Logical arrangement of subject-matter and psychological 
considerations of development of the individual conflict. Good 
pedagogy seeks to harmonize this conflict by granting society 
the right to determine what shall be taught but insisting that 
psychology shall determine how this shall be taught. 


Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapter V. 

James: Talks to Teachers, Chapters X, XI. 

Dewey: How We Think, Chapter V. 

Allen: The Instructor, the Man, and the Job, Chapter 
XXXVII. 

Class Discussion: 

1. Differentiate interest from attention, if you can. 

2. Enumerate kinds of interest. 

3. Differentiate feeling of zest from interest. 

4. State the law of association so as to make it applicable to 
interest. 

5. Thorndike says: “Get the right things done at any cost, 
but get them done with as little inhibition and strain as 
possible.” Observe how this is being done in some class, 
and try to determine what governed the teacher in deter¬ 
mining the right things. 

6. List a number of ways of securing interest (feeling of 
zest) in constructive work, and state the approximate de- 




INTEREST AND ATTENTION 


95 


gree of strain you expect to have manifested in securing 
the result desired. 

7. A child makes a sled. Is interest here a means or an end? 
Explain. 

8. Dewey says: “Mental assimilation is a matter ot conscious¬ 
ness.” Is there any value in having a boy make a taboret 
to produce tool technic and skill when he seemingly cares 
nothing about tool technic and skill but only for the fin¬ 
ished taboret? Explain. 

9. Can you see any place for the abstract exercise in shop or 
construction work? Justify your answer in view of the 
fact that interest is the indispensable basis of every method 
of education. 

10. If attention cannot be demanded, how, then, can it be 
secured? 

11. State the law of attention. 

12. What effect has a pupil’s posture upon his attention? Why? 



CHAPTER VII 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES J THE GROUP SYSTEM 


1. The Law of Probability. If one were to take a num¬ 
ber sufficiently large to exclude serious effects from acci¬ 
dental variations of anything in nature, and classify according 
to some particular characteristic, the curve plotted to repre¬ 
sent such variations would be similar to that of Fig. 12. This 



is known as the probability curve and the law, the law of 
probability. It is also known as the biological law. For 
example, if we take 1,000 or more people and classify them 
as to height, we get a distribution such as that of Fig. 13. 
If we take an equally large number of manual training boys 
and give them like tasks, then classify them according to 
the time taken to perform the task we get a similar distribu¬ 
tion. In a similar manner we find differences in ability to 
execute work, in ability to understand proper technic, in inter¬ 
est as to projects to be made, etc., etc. No two people are 
exactly alike. 

2. Practical Significance of Individual Differences. In 

its largest or group significance individual variations have, 
to a certain extent, always been recognized in our scheme of 


96 



INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


97 


education. We have the various grades in the common and 
high schools, and special schools for the subnormal and the 
delinquent, in the larger cities at least. We have recognized 



Stature in inches 

Fig. 13. Frequency-distribution of Stature for 1000 Cambridge Stu¬ 
dents. From Yule, Theory of Statistics, p. 91. 

certain educational needs of common interest, such as arith¬ 
metic, reading, writing, citizenship, health, etc. After this, 
we have differentiated according to larger special activities, 
as agriculture, manual arts, household arts, etc. Fig. 14, a and 
b. We have recognized differentiations in schools in types 
of instruction and types of connection to be made for those 
going into the professions. Within very recent years we have 
begun to make provisions in full-time, part-time, and even¬ 
ing schools for those who must early leave school and enter 
upon vocational activities as compared with those who will 




































98 


TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


take a college course. Fig. 14, c and d. The problem of this 
discussion, however, is not concerned so much with these 
larger differentiations of subject-matter as with the finer 



Fig. 14a. Comparative Educational Needs in the State of Missouri. 

Census 1910. 

groupings for teaching purposes within the manual and indus¬ 
trial arts. 

Older manual arts teaching practice seemingly tried to ig¬ 
nore facts of individual differences. Courses were organized 
as tho all children were alike in mental ability, in ability to 
execute in wood, metal, and other media, in interests, etc. A 
certain number of exercises were to be made in so many 
periods; the teacher set the problems, which were the same 
for all. The young teacher who planned his work in this 
manner, of course, quickly found himself in a dilemma—fast 
workers completed the task before the period was up; slow 







INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


99 


workers couldn’t get thru on time; the superintendent refused 
to allow the fast workers to be excused before the close of 
the period, for various reasons. Rather quickly and unpleas¬ 
antly it dawned upon the young teacher that such differences 
existed and that some means must be found to provide for 
them. Had he not been hampered by public school condi¬ 
tions, he might easily have solved the problem by providing 
a teacher and a course of work to fit the needs of each pupil. 
Not being able to do this he is driven to see that, while no 
two individuals are exactly alike, there are enough similari¬ 
ties or likenesses to make possible certain groupings. 

3. The Group System. The so-called group system of 
organization and instruction is based upon the fact that, while 
no two individuals are exactly alike, no two individuals are 
entirely different, and that similarities are sufficiently numer¬ 
ous to make possible certain groupings among a number of 
individuals for purposes of subject-matter organization and 
instruction. Examine Fig. 13 for illustration. The fact that 
the curve is constantly changing its direction indicates that 
none of the men measured for height were of exactly the 
same stature. On the other hand, it will be noted that the 
interval used as a unit of measurement is the inch. Obviously, 
with any large number of men examined, not a few will be 
found to fall within a given measurement such as this. 

This inch represents, then, an interval selected here as of 
sufficient size for purposes of analysis, as is indicated by the 
curve as plotted. It would have been possible to have taken 
a smaller interval; it would have been possible to have taken 
a larger one. To have taken a smaller interval would have 
been to increase the accuracy with which the curve could 
have been plotted or the accuracy with which the analysis 
could have been made. To have increased the interval would 
have been to have decreased the accuracy of differentiation. 

There is, of course, such a thing as having groups or inter- 










INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


101 



Local Community Need in Industrial Arts. Charted from R. J. Leon- 
Schools of Hammond” (Indiana). Population20,925 (1910). 



















102 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


vals so small that they are difficult to handle as a means of 
practical investigation. Again, the interval may be so large 
as to fail to distinguish individuals one from another in 



Fig. 14c. Educational Activities Based upon Vocational 
Interests or Needs. 


groups sufficiently numerous to indicate anything of value. 
If, in Fig. 13, for example, an interval of eight times one 
inch had been used, all men then would have classed as one 
and nothing as to differences could have been told,—no curve 
could have been plotted. Figs. 12, 15, and 16 can be similarly 
analyzed. 

The essential thing to be derived from a consideration such 
as that of the preceding paragraph is the fact that wherever 
there is change and difference, whether in time or in char¬ 
acteristics of one kind or another, the only means we have of 
making an analysis—of plotting the curve—is to break up 






INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


103 


the movement into intervals or groups each based upon some 
finite unit of measurement. The group system in organiza¬ 
tion and teaching manual and industrial arts is merely an 



application of this practical device, as old as time itself, by 
which certain areas, to refer to Fig. 15, may be set off between 
the base line and the line which represents progress. 
















104 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


Philosophically we make use of the group system in every 
consideration of a given characteristic of any kind which is 
dynamic or changing or moving, for, to consider implies to 
select, and selection is possible only thru grouping. In the 
discussion which follows, then, it should be remembered that 



Fig. 15. Accumulation of Knowledge and Skill thru Progressive 
Grouping of Subject Matter. 

it is not a question as to whether we shall group or not group 
but rather as to the most convenient size of the group we are 
to use as an interval for purposes of practical considerations 
of matters of administration. 

4. The Group System Applied to the Manual and Indus¬ 
trial Arts. Historically, American manual arts practice 
has been influenced greatly by two foreign movements—the 
Russian system of tool instruction and Swedish sloyd. The 
former was organized by M. Victor Della Vos at Moscow for 
purposes of better training men for railway shop and engineer¬ 
ing work, and was thoroly technical in its aspects. Swedish 
sloyd arose in response to a demand for a better type of 






















INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


105 


citizenship. Both systems emphasized orderly introduction 
of instruction in the use of tools, the former by the use of 
abstract exercises, the latter mainly thru the use of the useful 
model. In methods of teaching, the former made use of the 
class as the unit while the latter gave instruction individually. 
American practice makes use of both exercise and useful 
model and the instruction is by class first with this supple¬ 
mented by individual instruction as necessary. 

Examine the type outlines, Griffith: Correlated Courses , 
pp. 12-15; 22-26, Technical Shopwork and Mechanical Draw¬ 
ing, Grades VII-X. It will be seen that the subject-matter 
here is grouped under certain headings. The work is sup¬ 
posed to be sequential in the main, going from simple to more 
difficult operations. After the first group there are a number 
of projects in each group. Each project in a given group is 
similar to that of every other project in the group. A student 
upon completing at least one project in each group will have 
completed the minimum essentials in this course of work. 

Now, as to allowances for variations in speed, the class 
remains working in a group until at least one project has been 
completed by every boy who is to be considered as passable. 
This means that the rapid worker, while he gains no more 
than the slow one in instruction or technic does gain in fa¬ 
cility in execution and in opportunity to make more things. 
Allowance is made for variation in interests in that a boy 
has freedom in his choice of projects within the group. Still 
further allowances for variation are made in these type out¬ 
lines in that the farther a boy progresses the larger the num¬ 
ber of projects from which to select. Also, after a fair degree 
of efficiency and understanding is secured, he is not only 
permitted but encouraged to modify the projects the better 
to meet his individual needs, subject only to limitations of 
the group processes. Should he want to make a project not 
in the groups, he is expected to abide his time until the group 



106 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


having the instruction pertaining to the making of that project 
shall have been reached. 

It will have been noted m the examination of the typical 
outlines referred to above that the farther a student advances 
in the work the larger is the amount of subject-matter and 
experience in any given group, Fig. 15. The amount of new 
subject-matter is not necessarily much greater but the accu¬ 
mulating technical knowledge and skill makes it possible to 
construct projects which are quite complicated and which 
require much time for completion. In grade eight any one 
student will complete not more than three or four projects 
at the most, together with the accompanying drawings, while 
in grade seven he will have completed six or seven projects 
in the same time allotment. In high school the projects are 
more involved in construction than in the eighth grade. 

A question might be raised as to the advisability or desir¬ 
ability of limiting pupils to choice within a group. Only in 
this way is it possible to care for large numbers, and child 
nature has, as has been said, more likenesses than differences. 
Boys of twenty years ago took interest in taborets at a certain 
stage of development; they still take such an interest. So 
long as the taboret serves a useful purpose in education better 
than something else, it should not be eliminated merely for 
the sake of change. It is possible to select representative pro¬ 
jects which will secure interest and at the same time permit 
orderly instruction in tool processes. It is recognized that 
such an arrangement is somewhat formal—individuals are 
not treated wholly as individuals. 

In answer to such criticism it may be cited that no man 
lives to himself alone in society, and that if education is, 
among other things, a preparation for living, such limitations 
are helpful rather than harmful. The homely story of the 
Irish immigrant, brought before the police judge in New 
York City for assault, illustrates the point at issue. He had 



INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


107 


“punched” another man’s nose. “Why did you do it, Pat”? 
asked the judge. “Faith, your Honor”! he replied, “I had 
always heard in Ireland that America was a land of liberty, 
and I was just exercising my liberty when this man’s nose 
got in the way.” The judge replied, “This is a land of liberty, 
but your liberty ends where the other man’s nose begins. You 
are sentenced thirty days for assault.” 

Expressional manual arts, central and illustrative, will take 
its groupings not according to processes, but according to pro- 
jects determined by the subject-matter of the academic work. 
If, for example, the aim is to develop number and language 
ideas thru the construction of the doll house, the construction 
work will be arranged with this thought in mind, the teacher 
having in mind the academic requirements in number and 
language work for a given month or week for a given grade. 
An examination of the type outlines in Appendix II, Expres¬ 
sional Handwork. Grades I-VI, will indicate groupings of 
expressional manual arts quite suggestive in character. 

Industrial arts, like manual arts, will have to be organized 
for teaching purposes upon a group basis. The present finds a 
number of different practices in common use. One set of 
administrators advocates a grouping wholly on the basis of 
production. Instruction, they say, will care for itself as an 
incident to production. Others advocate a grouping accord¬ 
ing to instructional needs, production being an incident. The 
chief difficulty in grouping here is due to the fact, already 
mentioned, that the giving of instruction, which has to do 
with intellect, is opposed to the development of efficiency, which 
has to do with feeling and skill. Industrial arts must develop 
efficiency, but efficiency depends upon instruction. 

It is not within the province of this text to discuss fully 
the problem of appropriate grouping of subject-matter. But 
in general, it may be said that those schools which have differ¬ 
entiated subject-matter and experiences into groups for pur- 



108 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


poses of instruction on the one hand and of production or 
efficiency on the other, with rather close alternation, come 
nearest a proper solution. For an example of a typical group¬ 
ing for industrial arts purposes, consult Bennett’s The Manual 
Arts, pp. 96-99. It will be noted that an instructional group 
precedes each production or efficiency-producing group. The 
alternation is so arranged that the student gets a basis for 
future production work in each new group thru instruction 
and preliminary exercise. This is superior to the Russian 
system, for in the Russian system the opportunity for prac¬ 
tical application, or the securing of efficiency, came only after 
a rather extended course in instruction and exercise. 

It should be especially noted that production projects are 
to be selected and so placed in the groups, that they shall 
provide opportunity for gaining efficiency in the application 
of the instruction of the preceding group. This implies fore¬ 
thought upon the part of the teacher in selecting his project 
work to see that experiences are introduced in a reasonable 
order as to difficultness and to see that all necessary experi¬ 
ences are provided for at some place. 

Quite different is this practice from that wherein the insti¬ 
tution executes orders for work as such work happens to be 
needed about the building. If the process is to be really 
educative it must be “construction for instruction, rather than 
instruction for construction”; certainly not construction 
merely for construction’s sake. A class might spend two or 
three years doing repair work about school buildings and 
still have no adequate preparation for carpentry as a trade. 
Experiences must be selected and arranged beforehand and 
not left to chance. If there is to be growth, as there must 
be if the process is educative, the curve which represents 
accomplishment must be constantly changing and ever be up¬ 
ward in its general direction. For practical purposes it must 
change group by group, and growth must be possible thru 



INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


109 


not too great steps at any one interval, Fig. 15. If the steps 
are too great, trouble will be occasioned thru violation of 
the principle of apperception. 

In the industrial arts, the number of students assigned to 
any one teacher for instruction and oversight is generally 
much smaller than is the case in manual arts. This makes 
possible greater differentiation in management. Industrial 
arts teachers often have such small numbers in a group that 
the progress of students may be independent one of another, 
with the instruction individual. 

In view of the fact that efficiency is such an important fac¬ 
tor in industrial arts, and the further fact that individual 
instruction is so expensive, there is a question as to whether 
public schools are justified in differentiations so great as to 
permit of individual instruction. Rather, the group might 
better be set for normal time, and normal quantitative and 
qualitative production requirements, with class instruction 
at stated intervals. The fast workers gain in efficiency in 
execution tho they may be held back somewhat thru having 
to await instruction in new subject-matter because of class 
organization based upon the slower students’ capacity to exe¬ 
cute. It must be recognized, of course, that certain types of 
industrial work lend themselves to class instruction better than 
others. Availability of duplicate equipment also will qualify 
groupings as to numbers to be accommodated at any one 
time. Instruction wherein the student is introduced to dan¬ 
gerous machines, as in a wood shop, will have to be given 
to smaller groups of students than will instruction in smithing, 
etc. 

5. Grouping for Classification and Grading. Since no 
two individuals are exactly alike the curve which represents 
any selected characteristic, as has been stated, will constantly 
vary, Fig. 12. For purposes of classification we may group 
individuals as in Fig. 16—2 per cent excellent, 23 per cent 



110 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


superior, 50 per cent medium, 23 per cent inferior, 2 per cent 
failure. The so-called average pupil may then be considered 
as of the 50 per cent medium group. Some institutions even 
accentuate such differences by an award of 30 per cent excess 
credit to the 2 per cent E, 15 per cent excess to the 23 per cent 
S, with a diminished credit of 15 per cent from the I. F, 



Fig. 16. A Given Characteristic Scientifically Distributed for Pur¬ 
poses of Classification. 

ordinarily, does not represent the mentally or physically sub¬ 
normal or defective. These are not supposed to be allowed 
in a normal group, but rather F stands for those who have 
ability but who do not apply themselves to the task assigned 
as they should to meet the essentials set for that particular 
group. 

Larger or smaller intervals might have been selected, of 
course, but for practical purposes those suggested will be 
found convenient and sufficiently limiting in scope. Any 
teacher of extended experience knows how profitless is the 
time spent in trying to estimate pupils or to group them in 
smaller intervals. Those teachers who mark pupils in terms 
of percents or half percents unnecessarily burden themselves, 
if they are doing their work conscientiously. The chief pur¬ 
pose of grading is that of rewarding good work, and pupils 
find rewards that are distributed as mentioned equally as 







INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


111 


stimulating as where the teacher seeks to refine the intervals 
to fractional percents. Some instructors grade simply as 
“passed” or “not passed.” Experience seems to show that 
such a large unit is not sufficiently discriminating as a reward 
to get all pupils to do their best, many strong students being 
satisfied to do merely passing work who otherwise would do 
superior or excellent. 

There will be occasion to refer to this section in the dis¬ 
cussion of standards and tests, Chapter XIV. 

6. Grouping for Developing Initiative. Mention has 
been made of the fact that, once a fair degree of understanding 
and skill has been developed in technical manual arts, a pupil 
is to be encouraged to modify designs in a group to meet 
his individual needs. Also, that he is to be encouraged to 
design his own projects, subject only to awaiting the time 
they can be constructed with projects of similar processes. 
In addition to this, it seems advisable to set aside an occasional 
group where attention can be centered upon individual initia¬ 
tive. Such groups may be limited to the extent the projects 
designed shall have no technical requirements other than what 
have been taught in previous groups. 

7. Summary. If one were to take a number sufficiently 
large to exclude serious effects from accidental variations of 
anything in nature and classify according to some particular 
characteristic, the resulting numerical distribution would make 
evident the fact that no two are exactly alike. If the results 
were to be plotted in the form of a graph, the curve would 
offer visual proof of such variations. The law by which 
these distributions are controlled is known as the law of 
probability. 

In its largest significance individual variations have, to 
a certain extent, always been recognized in our scheme of 
education. The problem of this discussion is concerned not 
so much with these larger differentiations of subject-matter 




112 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


needs as with the finer groupings within the manual and in¬ 
dustrial arts for teaching purposes. 

The so called group system of organization and instruction 
is based upon the fact that, while no two individuals are 
exactly alike, no two are entirely unlike, and that similarities 
are sufficiently numerous to make possible certain groupings 
among a number of individuals for purposes of organization 
and instruction. The essential thing to be derived from a 
consideration of the group system is the fact that wherever 
there is change or difference the only means we have of 
making analyses is to break up the movement into convenient 
intervals or groups, each based upon some finite unit of meas¬ 
urement. The group system in manual and industrial arts 
is merely an application of this practical device, as old as 
time itself. In the discussion, the question is not one of 
grouping or not grouping, but rather as to the most convenient 
size of the group for purposes of practical consideration of 
matters of administration and instruction. 

Historically, American manual arts practice has been greatly 
influenced by two foreign movements—the Russian system 
of tool instruction and Swedish sloyd. Both systems empha¬ 
sized orderly introduction of tool instruction, one thru the 
use of exercises and the other thru the useful model. The 
former made use of class instruction, in the latter the instruc¬ 
tion was individual. American practice makes use of both 
exercise and useful model. The instruction is by class first, 
and this supplemented by individual attention as necessary. 

For purposes of convenience in classification for rewards 
thru grading, we may group individuals as 2 per cent excellent, 
23 per cent superior, 50 per cent medium, 23 per cent inferior, 
2 per cent failure. Larger or smaller intervals might have 
been selected; for practical purposes those selected are con¬ 
venient, easy of administration, and sufficiently limiting to 
serve the purpose. 



INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 


113 


Certain groups should be set aside in technical manual arts 
wherein the student may be given opportunity to exercise initi¬ 
ative. At first, such attempts should be limited to the appli¬ 
cation to new projects of information obtained thru past in¬ 
struction. Whether such groups shall be set aside in indus¬ 
trial arts depends upon the aim of the course. Any course 
which is intended to develop leadership and its responsibili¬ 
ties should certainly provide such group opportunities. 

Reading References: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapters VI, VII. 

Bennett: The Manual Arts, Chapters VI, VII. 

Allen: The Instructor, the Man and the Job, Chapters V- 

VIII. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses, pp. 10-28. 

Class Discussion: 

1. Judging from the graphs on pages 71, 72, 75 of Thorndike’s 
Principles of Teaching, what conclusion do you draw as to 
the advisability of attempting to secure a like amount of 
work or the same degree of technic and skill from all the 
pupils ? 

2. What is your opinion of an arrangement for purposes of 
classification—2 to 5 per cent, excellent; 20 per cent, su¬ 
perior; 50 per cent, medium; 20 per cent, inferior; 2 to 5 
per cent, failure? 

3. Explain in what manner Thorndike’s graphs seem to justify 
such classification. 

4. What is your understanding of the term, average pupil? 

5. What is your opinion as to the advisability of giving excess 
and diminished credit—30 per cent excess for E; 15 per 
cent for S; 15 per cent diminished credit for I. 

6. Does F stand for defective or subnormal in the above 
scheme? 

7. If “every stimulus must be given not to children in gen¬ 
eral, but to a particular individual or group characterized 
by certain peculiarities”, what of class teaching? 

8. Granted sufficient teaching force or staff, is individual in¬ 
struction better than instruction to a reasonable number 
possessing like peculiarities? Discuss. 

9. In public schools, individual instruction is hardly possible 
irrespective of any considerations of desirability. State 



114 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


definitely just how you expect to make allowances for varia¬ 
tion on the part of your pupils in the matter of interest, 
execution or skill, and technic or form. 

10. How do you expect to develop initiative and at the same 
time teach the pupils the conventional ways of manipulating 
the material to be worked on? 



CHAPTER VIII 

CORRELATION AND ASSOCIATION 


1* Correlation. No other topic has appeared so fre¬ 
quently upon the programs of the drawing and manual train¬ 
ing associations in the United States as that of correlation. 
To correlate or not to correlate seems to be an ever present 
topic for discussion. Shall manual training shopwork and 
design be correlated? Shall shopwork and mechanical draw¬ 
ing be correlated? Shall machine drawing and machine shop 
work be correlated? Shall shopwork or drawing and aca¬ 
demic subjects, such as arithmetic and English, etc., be cor¬ 
related? Some teachers frankly oppose correlation; some 
favor correlation provided their special subject becomes the 
center or core about which the correlations are to be made. 
Others recognize correlation as highly desirable but believe 
such a conflict exists in any attempt at correlation that each 
special subject must go its own way. 

Correlation is the native state of mind of children. Re¬ 
ferring to Professor James’ famous phrase, it is out of a big, 
blooming, buzzing confusion that consciousness arises as a 
result of a differentiation of elements which go to make up 
this confusion. This analogy serves well to indicate both the 
strength and the weakness of correlation as an educational 
principle. If consciousness is a development out of oneness 
—out of a “big, blooming, buzzing, confusion” thru differen¬ 
tiations, it may readily be inferred that little children are to 
be taught thru closely correlated subject-matter—not arith¬ 
metic as arithmetic, not handwork as handwork, but all a 
part of one unified experience. As they grow older, differen¬ 
tiations may well be emphasized until we have arithmetic, 
language, science, manual training, etc.—each as a subject in 
itself. 


115 


116 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


2. Correlation Another Name for Association. Correla¬ 
tion is but another name for association and what has been 
said of association and the law of association applies equally 
to correlation. If we would be assured that certain connec¬ 
tions, as that the facts of mechanical drawing will be utilized 
in connection with the wood shop problems, we must see that 
such connections are made with frequency, recency, intensity 
and resulting satisfaction. The more specific and direct the 
connections or the correlation, the more certain are we that 
such connections will be made again under similar circum¬ 
stances. The more general the instruction and the wider the 
possibilities for application, the weaker are the connections 
likely to be. 

3. Two Types of Correlation. For the sake of convenience 
we may speak of correlations as of two types—immediate and 
remote or direct and indirect For example, a class of fourth 
grade children may be taken to a blacksmith shop. They may 
watch the men at ^ork; question as directed as to tools, pro¬ 
cesses, etc., etc. Upon returning to the school they may write 
up their experiences in the form of very definite lessons both 
in language and in number work. They may make drawings to 
illustrate parts in their lessons—drawings of the anvil with 
the names of the parts properly placed thereon, etc. They 
may make booklet covers to hold these and similar lessons, 
decorating the cover page. This might well be considered a 
correlation between elementary handwork and design, lan¬ 
guage and number work, and blacksmithing. Blacksmithing, 
however, will not be taught that class until second year high 
school, and then to the boys only. Nevertheless, we may 
justly call even blacksmithing a correlation—a remote cor¬ 
relation or, as Dr. Judd calls it, a correlation in the mind of 
the child rather than a correlation of time. 

An example of immediate or direct correlation will be 
found in the outlines for woodwork and mechanical drawing. 




CORRELATION AND ASSOCIATION 


117 


•Griffith, Correlated Courses, pp. 22-26. An attempt has 
been made here to make the mechanical drawing serve the 
woodwork thru having the principles of mechanical drawing 
taught in the making of drawings for the woodwork. The 


A 


A 


Absence of correlation 


c E 


D F 

Correlation 


a 



Correlation to be made 

Fig. 17. 


woodwork in turn serves the drawing thru motivating it, that 
is, giving the boys a feeling of real need for the drawing 
experience. 

4. Advantages and Limitations of Immediate Correla¬ 
tions. Certain advantages and disadvantages which accrue 
thru the correlating of one subject with another or one ac¬ 
tivity with another may be illustrated by a diagram such as 
that of Fig. 17. If a journey is to be made from A to B a 
traveler will experience little uncertainty and delay upon a 
road which has no intersecting roads. If there should be an 
intersecting road from C to D, he may have to stop and 
inquire at the cross-road which road to take to go to B. Let 
him come to another intersection like that at E-F, and again 
he hesitates—the greater the number of intersections or con- 








118 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


nections the more time will he lose in stopping to determine 
the right road. So in correlations, the more widely we relate 
an idea or an act, the less efficient is any one connection, 
which otherwise can find expression in one direction only. 
We increase the cross-roads, as it were, and these tend to 
hold up the traveler as he is not held up when he can go 
only straight ahead. 

From considerations like this we might conclude that cor¬ 
relations or associations are to be avoided; that educational 
ends are best served when we specialize—take a direct route 
to a specific end. If we wish, for example, to teach percentage 
to a carpenter, let us teach it not as principles of percentage 
with its by-paths or cross-roads into banking business, into 
sheet-metal trade, etc., etc. In other words, let us take path 
A-B which has no cross-roads. Now, so long as one so 
taught continues to travel the road of percentage in carpentry, 
well and good—this direct method is most efficient. However, 
suppose such an one should be called upon to travel not from 
A to B but from A to G, and no cross-roads are present, Fig. 
17. According to the law of association he will not know 
how or where to get off the road A-B, except by trial and 
error. As Professor James would say, he is non-plussed. 

Fig. 18 further illustrates the advantages and disadvantages 
of correlation. Correlation may be likened to a city having 
many connecting roads leading into it. A cross-country auto- 
mobilist will find it easy to get into such a city. When he 
attempts to get out, however, he finds more confusion than 
he would have found had there been but one road. 

5. Conflicting Aims. From what has been said it may 
readily be seen that generalized and specialized training are 
but one aspect of the problem of correlation or lack of cor¬ 
relation and that the aims conflict. The stream of conscious¬ 
ness is of a given volume. When we spread it out thru many 
connections or correlations, we necessarily make it shallow; 





CORRELATION AND ASSOCIATION 


119 


when we deepen it thru specialization and the elimination of 
connections we necessarily make it narrow. Shallow minded 
people are equally as unfortunate as are narrow minded peo- 



Fig. 18. Illustrating Advantage and Disadvantage of Correlation. 


pie, and vice versa. A person who can do everything usually 
can do no one thing well. On the other hand, a person who 
is narrowly trained may be called upon to meet life along 
some other line of endeavor; he is then non-plussed. The 
problem is one of those educational problems which do not 
admit of an ideal solution. In general education we must 
spread out to a certain extent for we want to produce a type 










120 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


of individual capable of meeting a number of situations fairly 
well. After these minimal essentials of breadth have been 
obtained, we ought to separate pupils into groups for pur- 
poses of specialization, narrowing and deepening their con¬ 
nections within the special group. By refering to Fig. 14 a, b, 
c and d we get a good notion of the educational problem as it 
has to do with generalized subject-matter and special subject- 
matter. These charts may represent the life of an individual as 
it has to do with his formal education. The problem is to a 
very large extent an administrative problem as well as a 
psychological and pedagogical problem. We do not and can¬ 
not in our schools teach individuals, we must teach groups 
with like characteristics and like life aims. 

6. Practical Difficulties and Aids in Correlation. Chief 
among the difficulties of correlating subject-matter which has 
become differentiated into subjects is the fact that what may be 
a sequence in one is not necessarily a sequence in the other. 
For example, a certain high school wood shop and drafting 
department decided to correlate their work. It was decided 
that the drafting room should make up the working drawings 
for the wood shop. The first problem in the wood shop was 
a piece of furniture—the boys had had grammar school wood¬ 
work and pencil drawing. This proved a satisfactory shop 
problem but as a drafting problem for first work in inking 
it was entirely too difficult. Usually, in such cases, it is pos¬ 
sible to make a correlation by slight modification of procedure 
in the drafting room. Pupils may be given preliminary ink¬ 
ing problems of a simpler kind. The outlines for woodwork 
and mechanical drawing, Correlated Courses, are correlated 
in this way. Certain exercise problems in drawing are utilized 
to bridge such gaps and thus permit each of the correlated 
subjects to have a logical sequence of its own. Again, in 
another school mechanical drawing, as to development and 
intersections, was taught wholly as abstract or unrelated 




CORRELATION AND ASSOCIATION 


121 


material in the freshman year. In the sophomore year in 
sheet metal, applications of these same principles occurred. 
Not a few boys failed to see any relation between the fresh¬ 
man drawing and the sheet metal application and had to be 
taught the application as new matter. A wise teacher of 
drawing will take time to make such connections in the minds 
of the boys by pointing out such applications and by the in¬ 
troduction of not a few sheet metal drafting problems as a 
part of the work in drawing. 

7. Summary. Correlation is the native state of mind 
of little children and they must be taught in terms of closely 
related subject-matter and experiences. As they grow older 
differentiations are to be emphasized until we have arith¬ 
metic, language, construction work, etc.—each with subject- 
matter of its own, with a right to its own organization in 
the main. 

Correlation is but another name for association and what 
has been said of association and the law of association applies 
with equal force to correlation. 

For the sake of convenience, we may speak of correlations 
as of two kinds or types—immediate and remote. In remote 
correlations the connections are made in the mind of the child 
rather than in time. In immediate correlations the desired 
connections are accomplished in time as well as in the mind. 

Certain advantages accrue thru the correlation of one sub¬ 
ject with another; also certain disadvantages. The problem 
of generalized versus specialized training is but one aspect 
of the problem of correlation or association. It is one of 
those educational problems which do not admit of an ideal 
solution. The best that can be done is to lay as broad a 
foundation thru correlations and associations as time and 
economic conditions will permit, and then upon this to erect 
a specialized structure made so by eliminating all correlations 



122 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


or associations or interests which do not lend themselves to 
the purpose in hand. 

Chief among the practical difficulties which interfere with 
close correlation of one educational subject with another is 
the fact that sequence in one rarely corresponds with sequence 
in another. Frequently, however, a thoroly satisfactory cor¬ 
relation can be made if each instructor will make cer¬ 
tain adjustments in the sequence of his subject-matter to 
accommodate that of the other. 


Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapter VIII. 
James: Talks to Teachers, Chapters VIII, IX, XII. 


Class Discussion: 

1. State the law of association as it applies to impressions; to 
memory; to habits involving muscular reactions. 

2. From observations made, enumerate evident regard for the 
law of association in some manual arts teaching. 

3. Describe any evident violation of the law if you have seen 
such and suggest a remedy. 

4. Concentration, repetition, and recall are means used to fix 
connections. State how the teacher observed was securing 
these. 

5. Why have a child build a piece of woodwork which inter¬ 
ests him rather than one which does not? 

6. Which is better pedagogically, a taboret with eight joints 
of the same kind or a joint disconnected from any object 
of interest repeated eight times, where the acquiring 
of proper technic and skill are the aims of the teacher. 
Would you modify your answer were one of the following 
specified: in lower grades, in upper grades, in high school, 
in university? 

7. Why have recitations upon assigned reading bearing upon 
the work being done in the shop? 

8. What is gained and what lost, if anything, by having 
mechanical drawings precede the making of projects? 

9. When manual arts is given as a means of teaching other 
subjects as history, etc, what is gained and what is lost? 

10. Practically all teachers believe in correlation—correlation 
of other subjects with their own. It is said that every 
subject has a right to organization as a subject in itself; 



CORRELATION AND ASSOCIATION 


123 


what do you conclude as to the possibility of correlation if 
this is true? 

11. As manual arts teachers, what attitude do you expect to 
take in the matter of correlating your subject with other 
subjects? 

12. Give an example of correlation in manual arts; in the in¬ 
dustrial arts. 




CHAPTER IX 

THE DOCTRINE OF DISCIPLINE 


1. The Problem of Discipline Stated. Whether the old 
conception of the mind as a bundle of faculties, each working 
independently of the experiences with which it deals, was 
merely a convenient academic solution of the impossible prob¬ 
lem of any one mind’s encompassing all knowledge, or whether 
the theorist evolved the faculty psychology first, and pedagogy 
made use of it because of its convenience, is a matter of small 
moment. What is of importance to the teacher of manual 
and industrial arts in this connection is that he have a clear 
conception of the problem of discipline as an educational 
means or an end. 

Since the time of Locke, educational practice has in the 
main justified itself upon the ground of discipline, the older 
view being that it mattered not what the subject-matter might 
be, discipline of mind in one thing necessarily meant discipline 
of mind in other things. For example, the study of Latin 
was supposed to strengthen the memory so that a good Latin 
student would be of necessity a better salesman of codfish in 
which a memory of faces is involved. Attending church twice 
on Sunday was thought to be a discipline which would carry 
over on Monday and make a man honest in his business, even 
as he was honest on Sunday in his church service. Making 
boys accurate and neat in manual training was to make boys 
accurate and neat in personal matters, etc., etc. 

From what has been said in Chapter VIII about the diffi¬ 
culties confronting education in its efforts to correlate or en¬ 
compass all knowledge and all useful habits of muscle and 
mind, and at the same time differentiate and specialize so 
that each thing considered might be worth while, such a doc¬ 
trine of transference of habits of mind and muscle, irrespective 


124 


DOCTRINE OF DISCIPLINE 


125 


of associations or connections, provided a happy solution. 
According to this doctrine it mattered little what was taught 
in school provided it was taught so as to develop some faculty 
of the mind, as memory, will, etc. Even manual training in 
its earlier days was guaranteed to make a boy honest, accur¬ 
ate, neat, etc., in all things, irrespective of connections, once 
a boy passed thru these experiences in his manual training. A 
boy made neat in his woodwork was supposed of necessity to 
become neat in his personal appearance, etc., etc. 

Unfortunately for the peace of mind of those who think, 
psychological and pedagogical investigations and experiments 
failed to sustain any such doctrine in its entirety. 

2. Early Revised View. Upon investigation and experi¬ 
mentation it was thought that the development of habits of 
memory, will, honesty, accuracy, skill, etc., in any one direc¬ 
tion was but slight guarantee that such habits would be found 
in other directions. The conclusion was drawn by certain 
experimentors that general training was an impossible thing 
and that only specific end was of any value. Even if we 
thought we were training the memory thru Latin, in fact we 
were only training it in ability to remember Latin. That if 
we wished to develop memory in any other line we could do 
so only by dealing specifically with that particular line. 

Naturally, this view presented a difficult problem to the 
teacher. A limited time for'the education of a youth, a world 
wide racial knowledge and experience with which to acquaint 
him, and then to be informed that only as each pupil was 
habituated to each highly differentiated experience, was that 
experience of value! If a boy was to form habits of honesty, 
accuracy, or neatness, he could not be expected to do so 
except as he was taught such habits in each and every line 
of endeavor. If a child was to be taught arithmetic, it would 
have to be arithmetic of the baker, the broker, or the seam¬ 
stress. There could be no general education. 




126 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


If the older view of habit transference without connections 
was false, and it is so recognized, the newer view led to some 
extreme generalizations or implications in the opposite direc¬ 
tion. Common observations are sufficient to indicate that cer¬ 
tain habits seem to function in subject-matter and method 
greatly different from that with which these habits originally 
were formed. A boy who has had a good course in woodwork 
generally does better work the next semester when he takes 
up forging, altho the subject-matter is quite different. A boy 
who has had a good course in forging the first semester does 
better work in woodwork the second semester An engineer¬ 
ing upper classman or graduate, as a general thing, keeps a 
neater note-book than upper classmen in other schools not 
demanding painstaking care in note-book work, etc. 

3. The Present View of Generalized and Specialized 
Training. It is generally recognized today that while there 
is no such thing as a generalized habit, specialized habits of 
mind and muscle are so intricately interwoven in their con¬ 
nections that oftentimes it is difficult to detect any connec¬ 
tions. It is out of this inability that the doctrine of generalized 
habits has grown. 

The law of association should give us the explanation of, or 
the answer to, the question of transference of habit. The 
likelihood that one thought or act will call up another thought 
or act is in proportion to the frequency, recency, intensity 
and resulting satisfaction of previous connection, other things 
being equal. No connection, then no likelihood of recall. 
An examination of any real or seeming transference of habit 
will show that such connections are due to: 

1. Similarity of subject-matter of specific experiences. 

2. Similarity of method of procedure. 

3. The extent to which such experiences have been made 

to take the form of ideals, or of rules, or of prindplgswhich 
serve as connecting links. ^ 



DOCTRINE OF DISCIPLINE 


127 


The boy who has had woodwork the first semester is bet¬ 
ter prepared to do metalwork the second semester, among 
other things, because habits of exact measurement in wood¬ 
work and metalwork are not unlike—similarity of method of 
procedure. Again, a boy who has had woodwork, among 
other things, has formed a habit, probably, of systematic 
methods of attack in woodwork, which habit has been dis¬ 
sociated from woodwork and made to take the form of an 
ideal—not systematic method of procedure a desirable thing 
in woodwork alone, but system a desirable thing always. 

A boy who is given habits of neatness, accuracy or honesty 
in the making of a bird house is that much better for the 
experience. School time, however, is too short to teach 
neatness, accuracy, honesty, in the one thousand and one 
things in which the elements are necessary. While “empiri¬ 
cal concretes/’ the specific experiences, “and not abstractions 
give the basis for association” (Judd), it will readily appear 
that attention, devoted to associations wholly within that 
experience and no attempt made to connect certain elements, 
dissociated thru abstractions, with other situations is a short 
sighted policy. That is, the correct way to teach neatness, 
accuracy, honesty, etc., is to teach them, for example, as 
necessary factors in making a sled, a taboret, etc. However, 
this should not be the sole end of education so far as these 
elements are concerned. After a boy has had a number of 
such experiences, it should be the aim of good teaching to 
get him to dissociate or abstract these elements and hold them 
in mind as things always to be desired in all situations. This 
abstracting process approximates pretty closely the old idea 
of generalized training—the essential difference, however, lies 
in the fact that only as such associations are made between 
empirical concretes and ideals and between these ideals and 
specific application is it possible to have a so-called transfer. 

If by discipline we mean this possible connecting up of one 



128 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


thing, idea, or experience to another thing, idea, or experience 
by means of ideals and principles, then discipline is not only 
possible but is the main justification for most of our particu¬ 
lars of subject-matter in general education. For example, 
woodwork is a very common requirement in seventh and 
eighth grades in nearly all progressive schools. Why wood¬ 
work, in preference to any other kind of industrial activity? 
Certainly, only a few boys out of any class are to become 
workers in wood. For these few, of course, similarity of 
subject-matter is an essential argument for this particular 
experience. Rather do we judge the highly specific experi¬ 
ence, such as cabinet making or the still broader experience 
—woodwork—upon the ground of discipline as just inter¬ 
preted. When we think of this experience not as woodwork 
but as industrial experience as differentiated from the profes¬ 
sional, the agricultural, etc., then similarity of subject-matter 
and similarity of method procedure enter in as very essential 
arguments in justification. 

4. Effect of Present View of Discipline Upon Subject- 
Matter and Method—Logical Basis. A discussion of the 
basis of subject-matter belongs primarily to organization of 
manual arts rather than to teaching manual arts. It seems 
advisable, however, in view of the discussion just preceding, 
to indicate briefly such basis, especially since such bases are 
pre-supposed in all of the type form lessons referred to in 
this book. First, since expressional or illustrative manual 
arts is a matter of assisting in the clarification of ideas of 
other subject-matter, as geography, history, etc., it can hardly 
be said to have subject-matter of its own. Certainly, its or¬ 
ganization will be subordinated to that of subjects it seeks to 
serve. Examine the suggested outlines for expressional and 
illustrative manual arts, Appendix II. With technical manual 
arts and industrial arts, however, the situation is different. 
Technical manual arts and industrial arts, being ends in them- 



DOCTRINE OF DISCIPLINE 


129 


selves, more essentially, have a right to sequential organiza¬ 
tion of subject-matter peculiarly their own. 

The selection of subject-matter and method of procedure 
in technical manual arts and industrial arts will be governed by 

1. The extent of similarity which will exist between such 
subject-matter selected for school purposes, and subject- 
matter the pupil will deal with after leaving school. 

2. The extent of similarity which will exist between method 
of procedure in such subject-matter selected for school 
purposes and methods of procedure in subject-matter 
pupils will deal with after leaving school. 

3. The extent to which such subject-matter can be gener¬ 
alized—put into the form of principles, or made to take 
the form of a science. The extent to which specific atti¬ 
tudes, or attitudes formed in connection with specific 
experiences, can be made to dissociate themselves and 
take the form of ideals. 

Education in general should begin as at the center of 
Fig 14-a or 14-b working outward as the development of the 
child’s nature permits. 

Where children leave school at an early age and enter upon 
trade or industrial work, Fig 14-c and d chart educational 
connections which should be made available. To do less is 
to lay our boasted public school system open to the charge of 
inequality of opportunity for acquiring an education. 

5. Modification of Choice of Subject-matter Due to 
Child Nature—Psychological Basis. If society determines 
what shall be taught, child nature must determine how and 
when it shall be taught. Children are not born logically 
minded and any logical arrangement of subject-matter and 
method must accommodate itself in its beginnings to child 
nature. Boys of high school age are intensely interested in 
wood-turning; there is little place in the work of the world 
for wood-turners. Manual training men, a few years ago, 



130 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


decided to throw out wood-turning for this latter reason. It 
is highly probable that wood-turning can justify itself on 
grounds of creating an attitude of interest and joy in work 
with machines that will make it well worth while, even tho 



Fig. 19. Training Room for Apprentices, Lakeside Press, Chicago. 


few boys ever can become professional wood-turners. The 
same thing is true of furniture construction. 

Again, similarity of subject-matter and similarity of method 
of procedure must accommodate themselves to an organiza¬ 
tion suited to the impartation of new ideas and new experi¬ 
ences. Were experiences in school to be made identical in 
subject-matter and method to those of the real world, there 
would be no need for schools. Instead of reproducing the 
entire real world condition in any one industry, such as car¬ 
pentry or cabinet making, certain typical processes and blocks 
of subject-matter will be selected and utilized in so far as 
they lend themselves to progressive learning and doing. A 
complete vocational educational experience, will, of course, 





DOCTRINE OF DISCIPLINE 


131 


involve experience under actual vocational conditions, follow¬ 
ing or accompanying such training or instructional blocks of 
experiences. For example, large printing houses have every 
facility for training boys to become printers thru placing them 



Fig. 20. Training Room for Apprentices, Lakeside Press, Chicago. 


in press-rooms and composing rooms where real life condi¬ 
tions obtain. They do place them there one-half time but not 
primarily for instructional purposes. The instruction of these 
boys is given in an especially fitted room having equipment 
for printing at one end and school desks at the other end, 
Figs. 19 and 20. Likewise, large manufacturing plants differ¬ 
entiate instruction from production, Figs. 21 and 22, giving 
part time to instruction and part to production. 

In the smaller communities where limited numbers make 
a modified form of organization for instruction necessary, or 
in larger communities where trades and industry are of such 











132 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


a character that group instruction is not possible or advisable, 
instruction will have to be individual and on the job. The 
principles of organization and classification of teachable con¬ 
tent and its arrangement for effective instruction will not 
differ. Certain related work, such as mathematics, drawing, 



Fig. 21. Shop Apprentices in Class of Mechanical Drawing, Schenectady 
Works. Courtesy of General Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y. 


science not infrequently may still be given in classes thru 
part-time instruction even where the manipulative processes 
must be taught on the job thru the instructional foreman. 

6. Summary. Whatever may have been the origin of 
the doctrine of discipline, it is important that the teacher of 
manual and industrial arts have a clear conception of the 
problem of discipline as an educational means or as an end. 
Since the time of Locke, educational practice has in the main 
justified itself upon the ground of discipline, the older view 






DOCTRINE OF DISCIPLINE 


133 


being that it mattered not what the subject might be, discipline 
of mind in one thing necessarily meant discipline of 
mind in other things. In view of the difficulties confront¬ 
ing education in its efforts to correlate or encompass all 
knowledge and all useful habits, and at the same time differ- 



Fig. 22. Training Room for Machinist Apprentices, First Year. Cour¬ 
tesy of General Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y. 


entiate and specialize so that each thing considered might 
be worth while, such a doctrine of transference of habits, 
irrespective of connections or associations, provided a happy 
solution. Unfortunately, psychological and pedagogical ex¬ 
periences failed to sustain any such doctrine in its entirety. 

Investigation and experimentation failed to sustain the 
original belief and out of this arose a belief that only specific 
training or training toward a highly specific end was of any 
walue. This new view presented a difficult problem to the 








134 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


teacher, especially in general education where he did not 
know the specific future of any of his pupils. If the older 
view claimed too much for itself, the newer view led some 
to extreme generalizations in the opposite direction. 

It is generally conceded that there is no such thing as a 
generalized habit in the sense^ that training in one activity will 
carry over into another wholly unrelated activity. On the 
other hand, specialized habits are so intricately interwoven 
that it is often difficult to detect any connections. Out of this 
inability has come the doctrine of transference without connec¬ 
tions. The law of association provides the answer to the 
question as to transference. No connections, then no trans¬ 
ference. Such connections may be made thru similarity of 
subject-matter, similarity of method of procedure, thru gen¬ 
eralization or idealization. Connections of the third type 
are so very economical of time that education of the past has 
confined its attention to this type very largely. It is to this 
type the psychologist of today, who advocates transference, 
refers. “Transference takes place whenever generalization 
is reached.” (Judd.) If by transference we mean this pos¬ 
sible connecting up of one idea or experience with another 
idea or experience thru generalization or idealization, then 
discipline is not only possible but is the main justification for 
most of the particulars of subject-matter in general education. 

The selection of subject-matter of technical manual arts and 
industrial arts will be governed, as is all other subject-matter 
and method, by similarity of subject-matter, similarity of 
method of procedure of school experiences to that of probable 
future life experiences, and extent of generalization and 
idealization possible. Education in general, then, will begin 
with such subject-matter as is common to all activities, gradu¬ 
ally differentiating into special lines to meet special needs. 

The above basis for choice of subject-matter is social, eco¬ 
nomic, and logical. Children, however, are not born logically 




DOCTRINE OF DISCIPLINE 


135 


minded, and any logical arrangement of subject-matter and 
method will have to accommodate itself in its beginnings to 
child nature. Also, considerations of similarity of subject- 
matter and similarity of methods of procedure must accom¬ 
modate themselves to an organization suited to the imparta- 
tion of new ideas and new experiences—in other words, to 
considerations of instruction. 


Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapter XV. 

Judd: Psychology of High School Subjects, Chapter XVII. 
Bennett: The Manual Arts, Chapter V. 

Colvin: The Learning Process, Chapters XIV-XVI. 


Class Discussion: 

1. What is meant when a subject is said to be justified as a 
part of the course of study on account of its disciplinary 
value ? 

2. What is the view of those who uphold what is known as 
the doctrine of formal discipline? 

3. Have you in your reading ever observed any argument for 
manual arts seemingly based upon this doctrine? 

4. Under what conditions may improvement in one special 
power assist in the improvement of another or others ? 

5. If “mental capacity is highly specialized”, upon what 
grounds do you justify a course of study which requires 
all boys of seventh and eighth grades to take woodwork in 
a city school system? 

6. Consulting the chart, Fig. 14b, would you say that a city 
would do better by its boys if it were to offer subjects 
other than woodwork, such as metalwork, printing, agricul¬ 
ture, etc.? 

7. In a small city, where the necessary money cannot be pro¬ 
vided for these various options and only woodwork can be 
provided, upon what grounds can you justify woodwork 
for all boys? 

8. Will teaching a boy accuracy, neatness, truthfulness, etc., 
in the making of a sled cause him to be more accurate, 
neater, and more truthful in other matters? If an affirma¬ 
tive answer is given, explain the conditions under which 
the transfer is brought about and the relative likelihood of 
transfer or amount of transfer. 

9. Consulting the charts, Fig. 14 a, b, c and d, again, explain 
how you would justify: 1. General Education. 2. Manual 
Arts. 3. Highly Specialized or Vocational Education. 




CHAPTER X 

TYPES OF THINKING INHERENT IN THE MANUAL AND 
INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

1. Introduction. Psychologists have differentiated 
thinking into two types—associative and selective. Authors 
of pedagogical literature have been content to accept this 
differentiation with the result that two distinct schools of 
thought as to educational method and practice have arisen. 
The first is composed of men who stress authority and race 
experience and make little effort to develop initiative and 
originality. The second is composed of men who seek to 
stress the development of initiative, originality, and a resource¬ 
ful attitude in pupils, minimizing authority and benefits which 
accrue from race experience. A rather voluminous liter¬ 
ature has been the result of the controversy carried on by 
members of these two schools of thought. Much of this 
literature consists of rather vigorous criticism of the other’s 
point of view. Manual arts and industrial arts methods, and 
the theory upon which the methods have been based, have had 
no small amount of such criticism. In order to properly eval¬ 
uate such methods, which methods are presented in the chap¬ 
ter following, effort will be made in this chapter to evaluate 
the types of thinking which are common and which furnish 
the basis for theory as to method and aims. 

The educative process is concerned chiefly with associa¬ 
tive thinking and with selective thinking of certain well-de¬ 
fined types. One who has followed the discussions which 
have taken place between these two schools of thought is 
impressed with the fact that much of the misunderstanding and 
lack of respect for each other’s view is due to the assumption 
of extreme positions. If, instead of making use of an evalu¬ 
ating unit or interval which divides the subject into two parts, 


136 


TYPES OF THINKING 


137 


we were to take a smaller unit, one that would give us three 
parts, Fig. 23, we should find it easier to analyze and orient 
our positions with greater success. In no case is an experi¬ 
ence one of associative thinking solely, or of selective think¬ 
ing solely. In every case of associative thinking there is 
some selective thinking and in every case of selective think¬ 
ing there must be associative thinking; it is a question of 
degree. For this reason we are at liberty to select any unit 
or interval of measurement we may deem advisable. 

2. Three Types of Thinking. Instead of discussing the 
traditional two types, associative and selective, let us consider 
what we may call common associative, select-associative, and 
selective. The term select-associative has been introduced as 
a means of designating a type of thinking which is more 
selective than common associative and more dependent upon 
association than is selective. It is a type of thinking of great 
importance to the technical manual and industrial arts. 

Common associative thinking is that kind of thinking which 
finds expression when two women with nothing in particular 
to do meet and carry on conversation over the back-yard fence, 
that kind of thinking which finds expression when men meet 
about the fire in the village store with nothing in particular to 
do but pass the time away. Such thinking is “more or less 
rambling, with no central idea—a mass of detail related in 
time rather than in reason.” It is as if one were to sit by the 
side of a stream watching the various forms of floating ma¬ 
terials pass by without any attempt ever to arrest any of 
them for a useful purpose of some kind or another. Suppose, 
however, that one were a fisherman, whose comfort in winter 
depended upon his getting from those passing floating materials 
his winter supply of wood. As the various materials pass by, 
he does not idly let them all pass but selects therefrom those 
which best serve his purpose. This latter typifies what takes 
place in selective thinking or reasoning. As the stream of 



138 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


consciousness flows on thru common associations, the mind, 
as it were, selects therefrom those things which serve the 
purpose under consideration. The fisherman does not deter¬ 
mine what shall pass by; neither does the mind determine 
what thoughts or ideas shall pass by in the stream of con- 


Common / 

defect- 


Associative or / 

Associative 


Random Thinkina / 





Selective 

Type / 

Type 2 

Type 2 ? 


Fig. 23. Three Types of Thinking. 


sciousness. What thought or action shall follow another 
thought or action is determined by the frequency, recency, 
intensity, and resulting satisfaction of previous associations, 
other things being equal. If the mind does not arbitrarily 
determine what shall pass by, it probably does have the power 
to choose from among those things as they pass by. It is 
this ability to choose and to postpone reactions which dis¬ 
tinguishes man from other animals. 

Now, that we have examined the two extreme types of 
thinking, we ought to be prepared to orient the middle type, 
select-associative, Fig. 23, without difficulty. Not all asso¬ 
ciative thinking is of such random character as that of the 
women engaged in conversation over the back-yard fence or 
of the idle men about the fire of the village store. Neither, 
on the other hand, may the agent or individual be as free 
to make selections and choose his own terms as was the fisher 
beside the river. For example, it may be a student in tech¬ 
nical manual arts or an industrial arts course wherein he has 








TYPES OF THINKING 


139 


been taught and shown just how to make a joint of a certain 
type, or some other technical operation wherein the teacher 
has made use of conventional methods of procedure in his 
instruction and his demonstration. The type of thinking the 
student engages in when he tries to execute instructions in 
the making of the project is not to be classed as random; 
there is a definite goal toward which the student is working. 
Neither can it be classed as selective in the sense that the 
student is a free agent to work out his problem as he likes. 
It is a type of thinking we have chosen to call select-associa¬ 
tive—selective in that there is a definite end in mind upon 
the part of the student in view of which he makes selection 
of favorable ideas as they pass thru consciousness by associa¬ 
tion, associative in that the goal and the means are set by 
society and the race thru the teacher. The chief effort of 
the boy in his selection is one of determining thru recall the 
proper means or method of procedure. The sample we get 
by placing our measuring unit at this middle position, Fig. 23, 
is classed as associative in pedagogical writings. The reader 
will do well to remember, however, that it has selective ele¬ 
ments but that those selective elements are selective on the 
part of the race and not the boy; that the boy confines his 
effort to thinking them over and acting them out thru asso¬ 
ciation. 

3. Evaluation of Types of Thinking. The first type, 
random thinking, may be dismissed from further considera¬ 
tion by the statement that it finds a place in the educative 
process thru necessity rather than thru choice. It is the basis 
for the second and the third types. Being instinctive, our 
chief concern is one of direction rather than encouragement. 
When we give it direction it then becomes type two and three. 
It is given a place in our discussion because it is a distinct 
type and one which often is confused with type three as to 
educational significance. This first type is not regarded highly 




140 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDU STRIA L AR TS 


in the world’s work. Being the most common, the least 
economical, and requiring as it does no educational invest¬ 
ment, it is the least paid. It is the chief mental characteristic 
of the unskilled labor class. Type two is not so common as 
type one; its rewards are correspondingly greater. The re¬ 
sults it accomplishes are of greater value to society. It is the 
chief mental characteristic of the skilled labor class. The 
greatest rewards are reserved for the third type; this is the 
chief mental characteristic of the inventor or director class. 

This stratification of society into the common associative 
thinking class, or unskilled; select-associative, or the skilled; 
and the selective, or inventor, or director class is a social ar¬ 
rangement or racial development which finds an exact coun¬ 
terpart in individual development. In the individual there 
comes first unorganized action and thought. Out of this spon¬ 
taneity comes more efficient or skilled reactions, because they 
are aided thru instruction or thru teaching of such associa¬ 
tions as race experience has found helpful. Third, comes 
creative effort most worth while because it is based upon in¬ 
struction in the things of past experience. 

Of course this third type is highly to be desired and every 
effort made to develop it. However, it should be remembered 
that most of the world’s work is done by type number two, 
and that it is not only not possible to produce any very large 
number of striking examples of number three type, but that 
the most effective training for number three type requires 
a certain amount of elementary experience in number one and 
number two as preliminaries for number three. 

4. Instruction on the Lower and the Higher Plane— 
Storage of Knowledge and Acquisition of Mechanical Skill. 
When pupils are required to comprehend and retain facts as 
an aim; when skill is aimed at as an end in itself, this, Dr. 
Frank McMurry has characterized as instruction on a lower 
plane. When facts are to be comprehended and remembered 




TYPES OF THINKING 


141 


as means not ends; when efficiency is the goal, and the aim is 
to make pupils high minded, judicious, forceful, self-reliant,— 
this he calls instruction on a higher plane. 

Quite evidently the meaning intended to be conveyed is that 
of the two justifications: Justification thru similarity of sub¬ 
ject-matter and similarity of method of procedure, and justi¬ 
fication thru the development of ideals and principles and 
rules that may serve as connecting links to a wider range of 
experience than the little specific experiences given in school; 
this latter is to be the chief justification. By instruction on 
the lower plane he means instruction which emphasizes mere 
associative thinking—emphasis upon what to do and how to 
do it rather than why a thing is done as it is. By instruction 
on the higher plane he refers to that type of instruction which 
emphasizes the method of selective or purposive thinking, 
initiative, originality, inventiveness, not of the teacher but of 
the pupil. When a boy is given a blueprint and told just how 
to proceed in the making of a mechanical drawing copy or 
a tracing of this blueprint,—this type of instruction he would 
class as on a lower plane. The associations the pupil makes 
in making his mechanical drawing copy or his tracing are 
those the teacher has made for him. The thinking for the 
boy is reproductive rather than productive. An excellent 
copy or tracing may result and yet the boy may be ignorant 
of the meaning of the drawing or of the principles in¬ 
volved in its construction and fail to dissociate such ideals 
as neatness, etc. Not so with the teacher who designed the 
project and made the original tracing and blueprint. The 
designing of the project necessitated selection, analysis, reason¬ 
ing. Again, a workman digging a foundation for a house has 
always associated “rock encountered in excavating” with “throw 
it out.” He comes upon a rock which is so large it cannot be 
thrown out without special equipment not at hand. Analysis of 
the situation, selection of the favorable ideas which pass by in 



142 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


associative thinking enable him to associate the idea of the 
rock almost below excavation level with the idea of digging 
around it and letting it sink a little lower and not trying to 
take it out, and a new solution is afforded. 

It is this resourceful attitude of mind, this refusal to be 
non-plussed by all situations except those which are most 
habitual that Dr. McMurry considers the end of education. 

5. The Danger in Extreme Emphasis upon Manual and 
Industrial Arts as a Means of Developing So-called Gener¬ 
alized Habits of Reaction—The Necessity of Associative 
Thinking as a Preliminary to Selective Thinking. It is 
quite possible for one to deduce from argument for extreme 
emphasis upon manual and industrial arts as a means of devel¬ 
oping initiative, resourcefulness, etc., that subject-matter and 
conventional method of procedure are of no moment. Not 
infrequently, educators in their eagerness to point out the 
limitations of associative thinking and the advantages of selec¬ 
tive thinking lead young teachers to conclude that associative 
thinking in its entirety is to be avoided as an undesirable 
thing in education. 

As a matter of fact the development of initiative, origin¬ 
ality, resourceful attitude of mind, etc., are themselves means 
and not ends. The end is the efficient application of these 
ideals, and such applications imply necessity for attention to 
subject-matter and methods. A man may have a Ph. D., a 
sign that he is considered by some higher institution of learn¬ 
ing as possessed of a resourceful attitude of mind, and still 
find himself utterly non-plussed in the presence of a stalled 
automobile engine he happens to be driving, while a very 
“ignorant” mechanic may meet the situation by so simple an 
operation as removing and cleaning a spark plug. As a 
counter irritant there may be offered Prof. Thorndike’s rather 
extreme opposite view: “Training the mind means the de¬ 
velopment of thousands of particular independent capacities, 



TYPES OF THINKING 


143 


the formation of countless particular habits, for the working 
of any mental capacity depends upon the concrete data with 
which it works.” (Principles of Teaching , p. 248.) Dr. 
Judd states the case for associative thinking when he says, 
“Empirical concretes and not abstractions give the basis for 
associations.” Associations in turn give the basis for selec¬ 
tive thinking. Associative thinking is an absolute prerequisite 
for selective thinking and most of the world’s work is carried 
on thru this rather than thru high selective. The fisherman 
by the river, to revert to our original illustration, could not 
pick out suitable firewood for his winter’s supply did not 
the stream carry an array of materials past. 

6. The Danger in Extreme Emphasis Upon Associative 
Thinking to the Neglect of Selective. If teachers of tech¬ 
nical manual arts and industrial arts need to be warned of 
dangers in extreme emphasis upon one or the other of the 
factors mentioned above, observation and conversation would 
seem to indicate that the warning should be one against ex¬ 
treme emphasis upon associative rather than upon selective 
thinking. From the very nature of the problem it is to be 
expected that technical manual and industrial arts teachers 
will concern themselves very largely with the problem of 
habituating their pupils to certain lines of thought and action 
thru associations wherein race experience and conventional 
methods of procedure play a large part. They should under¬ 
stand, however, that the product of such instruction is not 
of the highest type. They should know that many of the 
specific experiences they give their pupils may easily be made 
to take the form of generalizations by which latter means 
their ability to meet new environment or new situations is 
made possible. A student taught to think of roof framing, 
referring to our past illustration, in terms of principles rather 
than in terms of certain numbers to take on the tongue and 
blade for each pitch and each cut of each member, will most 




144 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


certainly be better able to meet the many diverse problems 
of roof framing than one who has not been taught to generalize 
his particulars of instruction. 

In fact, only in this manner can such a student meet situa¬ 
tions which are new—situations he has not been taught to 
meet specifically. One is justified in entertaining a healthy 
skepticism as to the teaching methods and ability of any 
manual or industrial arts teacher who prides himself on never 
reading the literature of his craft or who feels that books 
possess nothing for him. Generalized experiences are passed 
on from one to another by or thru words, either word of 
mouth or the printed page, largely the printed page. The 
teacher who never reads usually never thinks in terms be¬ 
yond the particular associations taught him; he seldom gen¬ 
eralizes. His pupils consequently receive little encourage¬ 
ment to do more. Race progress, socially and economically, 
is possible only thru selective thinking. Even our select- 
associative type is not the highest type. There must be oppor¬ 
tunity for the third type, selective thinking. 

7. Harmonization of Conflicting Aims in Associative and 
Selective Thinking. It is impossible to place extreme em¬ 
phasis upon associative and selective thinking at one and the 
same time, just as it is impossible for the fisherman to let all 
the fire and other woods float by and yet take out some for 
his own use. For example, it is impossible, as has been 
previously stated, to teach a boy just how to make a mortise- 
and-tenon joint according to methods race experience has de¬ 
veloped and at the same time have him discover how a mor- 
tise-and-tenon joint is to be made. The former is associative; 
the latter selective. The former is instruction on a lower 
plane; the latter is supposed to be instruction on a higher 
plane. The former is deductive; the latter inductive. The 
former defeats initiative, the latter is supposed to give it 
exercise, etc. The former is our type number two; the latter 



TYPES OF THINKING 


145 


is supposed to be number three, and right here is where 
trouble often comes. It is more likely to be number one 
rather than number three when men of purely academic train¬ 
ing try to develop creative effort in technical manual or in 
industrial arts. They fail to recognize that instruction must pre¬ 
cede creative effort if it is to be worth while—if it is to be 
anything more than spontaneity, a preliminary to instruction. 

How then can we teach pupils the conventions of any craft, 
give them the benefit of what the race has discovered and 
also develop initiative, a resourceful attitude of mind, etc? If 
we cannot tell a pupil how a thing is to be done and at the 
same time have him discover how it is to be done, what can 
we do? The answer, obviously, is, first, arrange the experi¬ 
ences so that those conventions the race has developed, and 
which children could not discover in the time available, will 
be given them by the teacher deductively as instruction. Sec¬ 
ond, arrange enough groups of experiences that pupils will be 
encouraged to put together such information and experiences 
in new combinations, and at such times that invention, initia¬ 
tive, etc., may be encouraged and strengthened. 

In seventh grade woodwork, for example, teach boys proper 
methods of squaring-up stock, etc., by instruction and demon¬ 
stration. If this type of instruction is criticized as on a lower 
plane, as not calculated to develop a resourceful attitude of 
mind, grant that it is, but justify it in your own mind and in 
your practice by having it serve as the instructional part of 
Froebel’s (1) spontaneity, (2) instruction, (3) creative ef¬ 
fort. Do not, however, fail to intersperse groups which will 
allow pupils to modify dimensions and design projects of their 
own, just as soon as instruction and skill make this possible 
and profitable. We cannot accomplish skill and intelligence 
at one and the same time; we can, however, alternate the 
emphasis and thus accomplish a result that best makes for 
progress. Technical manual training and industrial arts must, 




146 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


as far as conditions permit, strive to develop the qualities 
mentioned by Dr. McMurry; this can be done best and only 
thru instruction on a lower plane as a prerequisite to instruc¬ 
tion on a higher plane. Care should be taken to distinguish 
between creative effort based upon instruction and spontaneity 
not so based. Each has its place but they are essentially 
different stages or aspects of the educational process. 

The inference as to method in general, then, is clear: We 
are to pay attention to the empirical concretes; education is 
to be based upon specific concrete experiences. Out of these 
experiences are to come the generalizations, the abstractions, 
the rules, the theory, the ideals which shall serve to connect 
these specific, concrete experiences with other specific, con¬ 
crete experiences not otherwise related. Such a method de¬ 
mands more than mere generalization and abstraction; it de¬ 
mands application of these to new situations or experiences. 
If it were desired to produce an intelligent carpentry foreman, 
one with a resourceful attitude of mind, we must not try to do 
this by having him disregard the subject-matter of carpentry. 
We must not have him dwell always in the world of random 
experimentation on the ground that in such a world he is 
exercising initiative and avoiding associative thinking which 
comes thru being told how and what to do. We must not 
expect him to develop a resourceful attitude of mind that is 
really worth while without passing thru a certain amount of 
elementary thought experience such as number one and num¬ 
ber two before stressing number three. In other words, util¬ 
izing the instincts of number one we would by instruction or 
association hitch on all the lessons race experiences can give 
about carpentry. Out of this should come an ability to do real 
creative thinking and execution in carpentry. The educa¬ 
tional process is complete only when this embryo has had 
opportunity to apply his derived theory to new situations. 

8. Modifications in Practice Due to Variation in Aims. 



TYPES OF THINKING 


14 7 


In all that has been said in the discussion so far, the assump¬ 
tion has been that conditions are ideal and that every boy has 
time and financial means to pursue a type of educational ex¬ 
perience which makes due allowance for natural development 
and which is calculated to train him for the highest positions, 
whether in a trade or other line of life activity. Such ideal 
conditions do not exist, of course. It will be found neces¬ 
sary, therefore, to institute practices to meet social and 
economic conditions which come short of preparing a student 
for this highest type. 

One should not expect, for example, to find in an elemen¬ 
tary industrial arts course, wherein limited time makes a 
hurried preparation for industry necessary, much attention 
being devoted to the development of originality, initiative, 
resourceful attitude of mind, etc. Rather the attention will be 
found centered upon associative thinking wherein the school 
seeks to give to the boy highly specific associations, such as it 
can, pertaining to some specific activity, determining these as¬ 
sociations from race experience and immediate individual need. 
Likewise, a boy being trained for the skilled labor class will be 
given more training thru associations and less opportunity 
for generalizations than will another being trained for direc¬ 
torship. 

Again, it may be well to call attention to the fact that em¬ 
phasis upon generalizations, rules, theory, etc., may justly 
find a place in certain types of schools at the expense of 
attention to specific concrete experiences. Such work, how¬ 
ever, is subject to serious limitations unless it is based upon 
at least a small amount of individual experience with the 
concrete experiences or data out of which the theory is de¬ 
duced and at least a limited opportunity for application. 

No school should be judged adversely as to method until 
its aims are known. Even then, a fair-minded investigator 
will not judge a school until he has made a survey of its 



148 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


work as a whole. It is possible for one to emphasize asso¬ 
ciative thinking for a period of a year or even more, empha¬ 
sizing instruction and conventional methods of procedure. 
Manifestly, if the plan of such a one calls for opportunity 
to make applications of such instruction the following year 
in creative effort, an inspector would be unjust to condemn 
the work of this teacher upon a visit or two to his seventh 
grade work when his eighth grade work called for opportunity 
for expression. It might be the better part of wisdom to give 
such opportunities at less great intervals—the principle, how¬ 
ever, is the same. Neither will a fair-minded inspector con¬ 
demn instruction which is associative largely when such work 
is for special ends, such as early entrance into industry. 

9. Summary. The educative process is concerned with 
associative and with selective thinking of certain well-defined 
types. Much of confusion and misunderstanding has arisen 
because the evaluating unit used is too large to give sufficient 
definiteness in attempts to analyze situations as they have to 
do with types of thinking. In no case is an experience one 
of associative thinking solely, or of selective thinking solely. 
In every case of associative thinking there is selection and 
in every case of selective thinking there is association; it is 
a question of degree. For this reason we are at liberty to 
choose any measuring unit we may consider advantageous. 
The unit which divides situations into three instead of two 
parts will be used in the discussions which follow. 

Our three types are: common associative, select-associative, 
selective. The new term select-associative is introduced to 
designate a type of thinking which is more selective than com¬ 
mon associative, and more dependent upon association than 
selective. Common associative is that type of thought wherein 
there is apparently no central idea, just a mass of .detail—an 
uncontrolled stream carrying every variety of floating thing 
related in time rather than in reason. Selective thinking is the 



TYPES OF THINKING 


149 


type wherein the individual sets his own goal, works out sub¬ 
ordinate detail, etc., thru his own analysis and selection. Our 
select-associative type is a type wherein there is a central 
idea and subordinate detail, but a type wherein the teacher, 
or society thru the teacher, has provided the central idea 
and given it its setting thru careful instruction and demon¬ 
stration. 

In our attempts to evaluate these different types of think¬ 
ing we may dismiss type one with the statement that it finds 
a place in the educative process thru necessity rather than 
thru choice. It is the basis for the second and third types. 
Being instinctive, the chief concern is one of direction rather 
than of encouragement. The first type is not regarded highly 
in the work of the world. It is the chief mental character¬ 
istic of the unskilled labor class. Type two is not so common 
and its rewards are correspondingly greater. It is the chief 
mental characteristic of the skilled labor class. The greatest 
rewards are reserved for type three which is the chief mental 
characteristic of the inventor or director class. This stratifi¬ 
cation of society into common associative, select-associative, 
and selective types of thinking classes is a social arrangement 
or racial development which finds an exact counterpart in 
individual development. While the third type is the highest 
and effort should be made to develop it, it should be remem¬ 
bered that most of the world’s work is done by type two, and 
that type three depends upon a certain amount of experience 
in types two and one as a preliminary. 

When pupils are required to comprehend and retain facts as 
an aim—when skill is aimed at as an end in itself, this, Dr. 
McMurry characterizes as instruction on a lower plane. When 
facts are comprehended and remembered as means not ends, 
when efficiency is the goal, and the aim is to make pupils high 
minded, judicious, forceful, self-reliant, this, he calls instruc¬ 
tion on a higher plane. By instruction on a lower plane, he 



150 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


evidently means instruction which depends upon associative 
thinking, similarity of subject-matter and similarity of method 
of procedure. By instruction on a higher plane he means 
instruction which depends upon selective thinking, upon gen¬ 
eralizations. Generalizations, or development of a resource¬ 
ful attitude of mind, he considers the end and aim of education. 

Not infrequently, educators in their eagerness to point out 
the limitations of associative thinking and the advantages of 
selective thinking lead young teachers to conclude that asso¬ 
ciative thinking is a thing to be avoided. Such teachers need 
to be reminded that “Empirical concretes not abstractions 
give the basis for associations,” and that associations in turn 
give the basis for selective thinking. 

On the other hand, teachers of shopwork often become so 
concerned with giving to their pupils instruction and demon¬ 
strations of conventional methods of procedure, in order 
that they may have the benefit of race experience, that they 
forget race progress is possible only thru selective think¬ 
ing and that the type of thinking their pupils are getting by 
such methods is not adequate. 

It is impossible to place emphasis upon associative and selec¬ 
tive thinking at one and the same time. One cannot tell a 
boy how to make a mortise-and-tenon joint and at the same 
time have him discover how it is to be done. It is possible 
to harmonize conflicting aims, or to attend to the two kinds 
of thinking by alternation wherein there shall be interspersed 
with the instructional groups other groups which give oppor¬ 
tunity for application of such instruction in new ways. The 
inference as to method in general is clear: we are to pay 
attention to empirical concretes—specific experiences with 
concrete materials; out of these will come abstractions or 
generalizations, rules, theory, ideals; these in turn are to 
serve as connecting links whereby the student may be enabled 



TYPES OF THINKING 


151 


to make more economical use of past experiences in meeting 
new situations. 

The discussion so far has presupposed ideal conditions 
wherein only the needs of the individual psychologically are 
considered. It must be recognized that social and economic 
need will make necessary the establishing of schools and 
classes for the economically unfortunate wherein emphasis 
may be placed upon a type of reaction manifestly not involv¬ 
ing a high type of thinking. Again, there may be other types 
of school which may, with equal justice, emphasize general¬ 
ized experiences at the expense of concrete or specific. No 
school or class should be judged adversely until a survey of 
its work as a whole, together with its aims, has been made. 


Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapters IX, X. 

James: Talks to Teachers, Chapter XIII. 

Final Report of Board of Estimate and Apportionment, Com¬ 
mittee on School Inquiry, New York City, 1911-1913, Vol. 
1, pp. 56-58, 211-236, 249-259, 294-298. 

Dewey: How We Think, Chapter VI. 

Class Discussion. 

1. Give an example of common associative thinking. 

2. Give an example of selective thinking. Of selective associa¬ 
tive thinking. 

3. Differentiate common associative, select-associative, and 
selective thinking by means of examples from the manual 
and industrial arts. 

4. When the teacher so organizes his work that pupils are re¬ 
quired to comprehend and retain facts as an aim—when 
skill is aimed at as an end in itself—this, Dr. McMurry calls 
instruction on the lower plane—“storage of knowlege and 
acquisition of mechanical skill.” By what right does he 
call it so? 

5. When facts are comprehended and remembered as means, 
not ends, when efficiency is the goal, and the aim is to 
make pupils high-minded, judicious, forceful, self-reliant, 
this he calls “instruction on the higher plane.” By what 
right ? 

6. In the light of past readings in Thorndike’s Principles of 
Teaching, do you conclude that there is no place in the 
educational scheme for emphasis upon that kind of instruc- 



152 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


tion which McMurry designates instruction on the lower 
plane? Justify your answer. 

7. Which is worse, never teaching the conventions of the 
activity (Conventional methods of procedure developed 
thru race experience and handed down from generation to 
generation—Cf. Sargent: Fine and Industial Arts in Ele¬ 
mentary Schools, pp. 6, 7) in which the pupils are engaged 
on the ground that to do so is to give instruction on a 
lower plane, or never to allow initiative (selective think¬ 
ing) upon the part of the pupils in that activity? 

8. State your order of procedure in a proposed manual or in¬ 
dustrial arts problem whereby you introduce your pupils 
to experiences in selective thinking and at the same time 
make such thinking efficient because based upon a knowl¬ 
edge of conventions involved. (Cf. Griffith: Correlated 
Courses, pp. 18-20) (Cf. Sargent: Fine and Industrial Arts, 
pp. 52, 89.) 

9. Classify the following as to plane of instruction: Teacher 
hands a pupil a blueprint day after day to be copied or 
traced; teacher marks on execution. 

10. Examine Bennett’s Problems in Mechanical Drawing and 
classify the types of instruction. 

11. A pupil makes a booklet from specific instructions; classify 
such instruction. What other experiences are needed to 
give the child experiences based upon instruction on a 
higher plane? Note that “instruction on the higher plane 
implies a central idea and subordinate detail. Associative 
thinking is more or less rambling with no central idea— 
just a mass of detail related to one another in time rather 
than in reason.” 

12. Differentiate or designate the type of thinking predominant 
in each of the following: expressional manual arts; tech¬ 
nical manual arts for general educational purposes; indus¬ 
trial arts wherein the aim is a machine tender, a skilled 
mechanic, a foreman. 




CHAPTER XI 

TEACHING METHODS IN MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

1. Teaching Methods. Two distinct methods are com¬ 
monly recognized, the deductive, or imitative and the 
inductive, or heuristic. The terms discovery method and 
inventive method will be found not uncommonly. Dis¬ 
covery and invention are essentially inductive and will be 
so treated in the discussion which follows. 

Just as we found in the consideration of associative and 
selective thinking of the preceding chapter, that schoolmen 
were divided into two rather hostile camps because of the 
selection of too large a unit of measurement for purposes of 
analysis, so in method discussions we find the same situation. 
As it was found possible to reconcile conflicting ideas in the 
matter of associative vs. selective thinking values by assum¬ 
ing a smaller unit or interval for purposes of differentiation, 
so we shall be able to overcome the difficulty of the methods 
conflict. Instead of debating the question as to which is 
the proper method—inductive or deductive, discovery and 
invention or imitation, we may have three methods, 1. Induc¬ 
tive method, 2. Deductive method, 3. Complete method. 

Those who see only skill and automatic connections, or 
feeling, as an end in education, path No. 3, Fig. 29, are 
bound to champion imitation and demonstration—deductive 
teaching. Those who see in education the development of a 
resourceful attitude of mind—intellect, will emphasize the 
heuristic or inductive method. Those who see in education 
the necessity for developing a certain amount of skill and 
technic that the effort to develop a resourceful attitude of 
mind may be worth while because of its being based upon 
some degree of understanding and some skill, and who insist 


153 


154 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


that this resourceful attitude shall find expression in efficient 
application, will make use of both the imitative, or deductive 
and the heuristic, or inductive methods, the complete method. 

It must be recognized that it is only for the sake of analysis 
that we can differentiate these—there can be no inductive 
thinking without deduction, no deductive thought without in¬ 
duction. That is, no new idea can get into the mind unless 
it is related to some old idea for interpretation. For example, 
a geographer goes into a new country. He finds new rivers 
and new mountains. He plots them and makes a map to 
show their locations. The process is one of discovery, induc¬ 
tion. The emphasis is on the new. Now in a minor degree 
the process was deductive. Were it not for his past experi¬ 
ences with, or knowledge of, the nature of rivers and moun¬ 
tains he would not have recognized the new phenomena as 
such. Now, let another person take this map and go to this 
country. He looks at the map and notes a river located at 
such a place. He goes to the place, finds the river by means 
of the map. The process here is essentially deductive—the 
emphasis is upon the old, upon the map. Yet the new is 
present too. These methods differ then in emphasis, in direc¬ 
tion of approach. 

2. The Deductive or Imitative Method. The chief ad¬ 
vantage of this method is economy of time. If society wants 
a boy to learn hovf to square-up a piece of stock, or to learn 
the conventional way of making a mortise-and-tenon joint, 
the quickest way is to tell him and show him just how to do 
this. In the boy’s effort to make the joint and to square- 
up the stock there is a certain amount of discovery going 
on, of course, but the chief mental effort is one of association 
in time rather than in reason, trying to recall what was heard 
and what was seen in the lecture and demonstration. The 
process is one of imitation rather than of discovery so far 
as the learning method is concerned. 



TEACHING METHODS 


155 


The weakness of this type of instruction lies in the fact that 
it does not tend to develop a resourceful attitude of mind 
but rather the reverse, dependence upon others. While dis¬ 
covery is present at first in varying degree, the quicker the 
mental connections can be eliminated thru the direct connect¬ 
ing of sensation and reaction in this particular thing the more 
efficient the worker becomes. The development of a resource¬ 
ful attitude of mind implies emphasis upon mental connec¬ 
tions, and any method of instruction which tends to eliminate 
such connections by the making of the connection thru feel¬ 
ing cannot be considered a fitting method for that purpose. 

It should be recognized that there is a large place for dis¬ 
covery in the execution of the most carefully demonstrated 
exercise. This is well illustrated in the following: “There 
is a psychology in every tool with which a child deals. For 
example, take the saw. If you are a child you grasp it in your 
hand and begin to work. Any child gets from this tool such 
an abundance of bewildering experiences that he hardly 
knows what to do with it. He feels it in his hand and when 
it comes in contact with the wood, he feels the pressure, he 
feels the new sensations which come to him thru his skin, he 
looks at the point of attack and his eyes are full of color 
and form. This great mass of experience flowing into his 
consciousness bewilders him. We say to him, ‘go slowly, 
take one stroke, then wait and readjust.’ If he should go on, 
at the end of the first stroke, he would be getting so much 
more experience that he would not know what to do with 
himself. Watch him after he has made a little way into the 
board with the saw. Now, the saw turns and binds. He gets 
more experience but he does not realize the fact that he has 
been turning the saw. The moment your skilled technician 
gets the sensation that comes from the saw binding in the 
groove, he knows what is wrong and he handles the saw so 
as to bring it in proper relation again with a turn of his hand. 



156 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


But your boy is bewildered. He gets so much sensation he 
does not have attention for anything else. There are more 
lines before him than he has any appreciation of, the lines 
get mixed up on the saw, and if he lands anywhere near the 
line he is very grateful for that much of an achievement. 
The process of learning is a slow unravelling of all this mass 
of experience. Skill comes from adjusting movement to 
sensation/’ (Judd, 1915 Report, Western Drawing and 
Manual Training Association.) 

This discovery process, as is indicated by the quotation, is 
ample enough, with every aid that can be given thru careful 
demonstration and instruction in the ways race experience 
has developed, to occupy the attention of the boy. If new 
processes are introduced this same type of experience is being 
repeated in new settings so that even in a four-year manual 
training course where demonstrations are a regular feature 
of the full four years’ work, there is discovery. This experi¬ 
ence, however, is not a sufficient one. The reactions are so 
closely related in time to the sensations thru feeling that 
intellect does not have as great opportunity to function as 
must needs be to make for that which the educator chooses 
to call a resourceful attitude of mind. 

3. The Inductive or Heuristic Method. The inductive 
or heuristic method, in its primary significance, refers to a 
learning thru mere discovery wherein no definite goal is set. 
Like the explorers of a new country the pupil travels about 
as fancy dictates. Of the three stages of development, 
(1) spontaneity, (2) instruction, (3) creative effort, the 
heuristic method, in its primary meaning, refers to the ex¬ 
periences of type number 1. 

Among educators, however, the inductive or heuristic 
method more nearly approximates what might be designated 
the inventive method. A definite goal is set, either by pupil 
or teacher, and the pupil is supposed to work out an adequate 




TEACHING METHODS 


157 


solution. Instead of the teacher’s leading the way, telling and 
showing, as in the imitative or deductive method, the pupil 
leads the way, the teacher following and not interfering ex¬ 
cept as the pupil goes so far astray that the experience be¬ 
comes of little value. 

It is not necessary to set forth here the advantages which 
come thru the inductive or heuristic method, the assigned 
readings cover these sufficiently. Suffice it to state that race 
progress is possible only thru this type of thinking. “Intelli¬ 
gent self direction, an alert resourceful attitude of mind, and 
power to plan means to an end are its fruits when wisely 
administered.” 

4. The Complete Method. The complete method is 
neither inductive nor deductive but both in varying degree. 
First one and then the other, alternating as the unfolding 
nature of the child demands. Froebehs spontaneity, instruc¬ 
tion and creative effort point the way. Creative effort, dis¬ 
covery, or invention, is of slight value until based upon a 
knowledge of, and a fair degree of skill in, the conventions 
of the activity in which the creative effort is to be. Instruc¬ 
tion in conventional methods of procedure is of slight value 
unless based upon a feeling of real need thru spontaneous 
activity or activity not directed and controlled by instruction. 
Spontaneous effort, in the very nature of things, must be 
self initiated and free from external authority, inductive. 
It is a discovery process with all the limitations which come 
from an attempt at creative work without information which 
comes thru race experience, and skill. Instruction consists 
in giving to the pupil information such as the race has col¬ 
lected thru countless ages of experimentation, with an oppor¬ 
tunity to acquire enough skill to make possible the next step 
in the learning process. Instruction is deductive, and under 
authority. It is not free except as the individual has been 
brought to see a real need thru the experiences of spontaneous 




158 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


activity, and then only partially, but is one of the steps toward 
a real freedom. Creative effort consists in utilizing all the 
information and skill obtained during the period of instruc¬ 
tion toward working out experiences not encompassed in 
instruction. 


The introduction to the 1912 Illinois State Course of Study 
in Manual Arts, by Prof. Charles A. Bennett, is a practical 
statement which gives full recognition to the principles just 
enunciated: “Any course in woodworking worthy of a place 
in the eighth and ninth grades of public school work should 
meet the following requirements: 


1. It should arouse and hold the interest of the pupils. 

2. Correct methods of handling tools should be taught so that 
good technic may be acquired by the pupils. 

3. Tool work should be accompanied by a study of materials 
and tools used in their relations to industry. Special atten¬ 
tion should be given to the study of trees—their growth, 
classifications, characteristics and use.. 

4. Drawing should be studied in its relation to the work done. 

5. The principles of construction in wood should be taught 
thru observation, illustration and experience. 

6. At least a few problems should be given which involve in¬ 
vention or design or both, thereby stimulating individual 
initiative on the part of the pupils. 

The course is arranged in groups, each group representing 
a type of work. These groups are given in the order of pro¬ 
cedure. The teacher is expected to provide problems of the 
greatest value educationally. This means that the things 
to be made should be worth making and that the process of 
making them should be interesting to the student. From this 
it follows that the things to be made must come to the pupil 
in an order which gives reasonable consideration to the diffi¬ 
culties to be encountered in making them.” 

5. Modification in Method Due to Variation in Aims. 


Aims will vary; likewise, we must expect methods to vary 
with these varying aims. While we shall find in every attempt 
to use any one method elements of the others, as has been 
pointed out, we may profitably indicate variations in placing 



TEACHING METHODS 


159 


emphasis. For example, primary grades will be found em¬ 
phasizing spontaneity in expressional manual arts; grammar 
grades and early high school will be found emphasizing in¬ 
struction in conventional methods of procedure, later high 
school will place emphasis upon creative effort. All of these 
grades, primary, grammar, and high school, will give atten¬ 
tion to technical subject-matter and methods, and all of them 
to a certain degree will allow for spontaneity and creative 
effort, or should, but the emphasis is as stated. Even in the 
work of a given grade in any given technical work, there will 
be groups set aside for the exercise of creative effort, where 
the work is wisely planned. The instructional groups will 
predominate, however, in the upper grades and early high 
school. 

Then, there is the need of the industrial arts group for 
variation in methods emphasis. Those boys who are to be¬ 
come foremen and directors will need more groups wherein 
creative effort is based upon instruction than will the type 
which is to go into low skilled or semi-skilled work where 
ability to follow orders and execute with facility is the chief 
prerequisite. 

In general, wherever we seek to develop skill, we shall make 
use of authority, imitation, demonstration. If we want to 
develop initiative, resourcefulness, we shall make use of 
authority, imitation, demonstration, no more than is absolutely 
necessary to give a sufficient basis in understanding and skill 
for experimentation upon the part of the pupil. 

As in thinking types, so in methods, the work of a teacher 
must not be condemned until the work as a whole of that 
teacher has been surveyed, including a consideration of the 
special needs of the class of pupils he may be instructing. 

6. Summary. Two distinct methods of teaching are 
commonly recognized—deductive or imitative and inductive or 
heuristic. We may have three methods, and, for purposes 



160 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


of harmonizing conflicting aims, we offer the following: 
(1) inductive, (2) deductive, (3) complete. Those who em¬ 
phasize automatic connections, feeling, will champion imita¬ 
tion and the deductive method. Those who seek to stress in* 
tellect and the development of a resourceful attitude of mind 
will make use of the inductive or heuristic method. Those 
who seek to emphasize creative effort based upon information 
and experience in conventional methods of procedure, will 
make use of both the imitative and the heuristic, the com¬ 
plete method. It must be recognized that it is only for the 
sake of analysis that we can differentiate inductive from de¬ 
ductive. In every act of induction there are deductive ele¬ 
ments and vice versa. Methods differ in emphasis and direc¬ 
tion, not kind. 

The chief advantage of the deductive or imitative method 
is one of economy of time. The weakness of this type lies 
in the fact that it fails to develop a resourceful attitude of 
mind. Rather does it develop a dependence upon others. It 
should be recognized that there is a large place for discovery 
in the execution of even the most carefully demonstrated 
exercise. This experience, however, is not sufficient to class 
it as of that type the educator has in mind when he speaks 
of developing a resourceful attitude of mind. 

The inductive or heuristic method, in its primary signifi¬ 
cance, refers to learning thru mere discovery wherein no 
definite goal is set. Among educators, however, it has refer¬ 
ence to a situation wherein a definite goal is set, either by 
the pupil or the teacher, and the pupil asked to work out 
an adequate solution. Intelligence and self direction, an alert, 
resourceful attitude of mind, and power to plan means to 
an end are its fruits when wisely administered. 

The complete method is neither inductive nor deductive 
but both in varying degree. Froebel’s (1) spontaneity, (2) in¬ 
struction, (3) creative effort point the way. 



TEACHING METHODS 


161 


Aims will vary; likewise we must expect methods in the 
manual arts to vary with these. The industrial arts will be 
found to have need for these same variations in method. In 
general, whenever we seek to develop skill we shall make use 
of authority, imitation, demonstration. If we desire to de¬ 
velop a resourceful attitude of mind, initiative, originality, etc., 
we shall make use of these no more than is necessary to give 
a basis in understanding and skill for purposes of experimen¬ 
tation on the part of the pupil. As in thinking types, so in 
methods, the work of a teacher should not be condemned 
until the work of that teacher as a whole has been surveyed. 


Reference Reading: 

Charters: Methods of Teaching, Chapters XIII, XIV. 
Bennett: The Manual Arts, Chapter VIII. 

Bagley: The Educative Process, pp. 239-247. 

Thorndike: Education, pp. 168-196. 

DeGarmo: Principles of Secondary Education, Vol. II, pp. 

178-182. 

Dewey: How We Think, Chapter VII. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses m Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, pp. 7-11, 41-51. 


Class Discussion: 

1. Discuss rather fully the advantages and the limitations of 
the deductive or imitative method. 

2. Discuss the advantages and limitations^ of inductive or 
heuristic method when not based upon instruction in the 
conventional ways of manipulating the materials under con¬ 
sideration. 

3. Differentiate and illustrate the complete method. 

4. In each of the above methods, would emphasis placed upon 
one method or another be modified were a certain grade 
specified, as primary, grammar, high school, university? > 

5. What method would most likely be found wherein pupils 
were being prepared for occupations industrially requiring 
low skill or limited skill? What method where a wide 
range of intelligence and skill is to be demanded? Where 
the pupils are being trained for leadership in industry, such 
as foremen? 





CHAPTER XII 

THE LESSON—ITS COMPONENT PARTS 

1. The Necessity for Carefully Matured Plans. Even as 

consciousness in youth evolves out of a “big, blooming, buzz¬ 
ing confusion” and takes form and becomes of value as it 
differentiates one thing or experience from another or others, 
so good teaching becomes of value just in proportion as the 
young teacher differentiates ideals, aims, and the details of 
preparation and presentation of subject-matter. Inspiration, 
feeling, instinct are valuable, of course, as has been pointed 
out, but intelligent direction is no less a part of the teach¬ 
ing process. 

There should be thought out the larger plans of organiza¬ 
tion of teaching materials. The essential governing factors 
as to choice of subject-matter and method of presentation, 
have been presented in preceding lessons. Typical outlines 
in various media and for various grades will be found in Ap¬ 
pendix II. This larger organization is best treated under 
Organization and Administration of Manual and Industrial 
Arts, the subject of a companion text in preparation. Tak¬ 
ing for granted this larger organization of subject-matter, the 
present discussion will concern itself with the detailed daily 
or weekly lesson plan, and particularly with method of presen¬ 
tation. 

2. The Six Formal Steps. For purposes of analysis, 
the followers of Herbart frequently divide a lesson into six 
parts; (1) preparation, (2) presentation, (3) comparison, 
(4) abstraction, (5) generalization, (6) verification or appli¬ 
cation. In actual teaching, of course, the lesson goes forward 
in this order only in a general way. The division, too, pre¬ 
supposes that each lesson is a complete whole, whereas certain 
lessons for rather extended periods of time may be given 


162 


_ THE LESSON—ITS COMPONENT PARTS 16 3 

primarily as preparation lessons looking forward to future 
application. In such cases steps number four and number five 
may receive but slight emphasis. Such lessons will be strongly 
deductive, imitative as opposed to inductive and develop¬ 
mental. Later lessons will be strongly inductive, calculated to 
develop initiative and creative effort. 

Preparation consists in having the pupils recall to mind 
certain previous knowledge or information and experience, 
which knowledge, information and experience are necessary 
as a means of connecting up new knowledge or information 
and experience with which it is desired to make the pupils 
acquainted. Preparation in information in technical manual 
arts is mainly a matter of securing recall thru examinatory 
questions or the recitation on assigned readings, bearing on 
past experiences. (Cf. type form of daily lesson plan, which 
follows.) 

Presentation in technical manual arts consists in conveying 
to the pupils new materials for assimilation. This is usually 
done by means of demonstration and instruction. 

Comparison consists in the association of one set of ex¬ 
periences with another set. For example, a student may be 
taught to hold the head of the gage against the face edge in 
gaging a piece of stock to width for a hat rack. He may be 
taught to hold it against the face edge in gaging a piece of 
stock to width for a counting board, etc. Before he can 
take the next step, abstraction, he must have compared one 
set of experiences with other sets, noting wherein they are 
similar and wherein they differ. In the case of the gaging, 
he should note in such comparisons that the gage head is 
always held against the face edge, abstracting the common 
element; then he is ready to take the next step, generalization, 
and make the deduction that gaging for width should always 
be done with the gage head or block against the face edge. 



164 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


In similar manner he may be got to deduce other principles 
or rules for working wood or metal. 

Verification, or application, consists in taking such derived 
principles or rules, and making them serve to shorten the 
time of experimentation. Once the student has learned that, 
in gaging widths, the gage block is to be held against the 
face edge, he is to be given an opportunity to govern himself 
accordingly in other situations similar in respect to this factor 
until the habit of always holding the gage head against the 
face edge in gaging width is fixed. 

3. The Six Formal Steps Not Always Inductive. It is 
customary to associate the six formal steps with the inductive 
method primarily with its emphasis upon the development 
of a resourceful attitude of mind. The six formal steps 
might as well be associated with the deductive method with 
its emphasis upon authority, upon subject-matter and method. 
The determining factor is whether the teacher or the pupils 
perform steps 3, 4, and 5, make the comparisons, abstractions 
and generalizations. Only so long as the children make the 
comparisons and draw the correct conclusions is the method 
inductive. In actual practice the teacher often either cannot 
or does not consider it advisable to wait long enough for the 
children to do this but tells them the deduction, or rule, or 
principle to be derived. The method, then, is essentially de¬ 
ductive. Both types of teaching method are legitimate. The 
ends to be served are different, but both are legitimate. Some¬ 
times one, sometimes the other is to be emphasized. Some¬ 
times the alternation of emphasis covers a period of years; 
sometimes it is so immediate it is difficult to distinguish when 
one and when the other is being served. 

4. Not Every Lesson Needs to Be Inductive. There 
are those educators who would have every lesson inductive 
in method. The young teacher will do well to recall that 



THE LESSON—ITS COMPONENT PARTS 


165 


knowledge of subject-matter and conventional method of pro¬ 
cedure and the development of a fair degree of skill are essen¬ 
tial factors in the educational process even as in the develop¬ 
ment of a resourceful attitude of mind; that the telling or 
showing or associative or deductive method is the most effec¬ 
tive method of giving the young this heritage of race experi¬ 
ence. It is not a sin pedagogically, for example, to tell a 
boy, when he does his first gaging for width, that the gage 
is always to be held against the face edge in gaging for width, 
if in so doing the way is being prepared and time thereby 
saved for the setting of a larger problem in analysis or com¬ 
parison and generalization. The unfortunate thing is never 
to set any problems wherein the pupil will be called to do 
analytical thinking, on the one hand, and on the other to 
mislead oneself into thinking he is providing opportunities 
for such thinking when he is defeating such ends thru un¬ 
willingness to wait for the pupils to make the necessary de¬ 
ductions. 

5. Modern Conception of Method. While the method 
of teaching developed by Herbart and his followers has proven 
wonderfully helpful in assisting young teachers the better to 
formulate and regulate the conduct of the instructional pro¬ 
cess, it is open to certain objections philosophically which 
make it more or less unacceptable to the modern educator. 
Representing, as it does, a conception of instruction as some¬ 
thing static and fundamentally logical it has had to give way 
to a conception of instruction as something dynamic, “mov¬ 
ing, M psychological. As a means of assisting the teacher in 
formulating his own thought into logical form thru careful 
analysis, it is still practically helpful; as a conception of what 
the conduct of the instructional period is likely to be, or 
should be like, it is misleading. 

Prof. John Dewey, in How We Think, has formulated a 




166 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


more acceptable conception of instruction. In this conception 
of the method of instruction we have the occurrence of a 
problem or a puzzling phenomenon; observation, inspection 
of facts to locate and clear up the problem; then the forma¬ 
tion of a hypothesis or the suggestion of a possible solution 
together with its elaboration by reasoning; then the testing 
of the elaborated idea by using it as a guide to new observa¬ 
tions and experimentations. Or, as Dean W. W. Charters 
states it: 

[ defined 

1. The problem or 

[undefined 

[aided by suggestion as necessary 

2. The solution or 

[by elaboration 

3. Verification. 

The young teacher will do well to read carefully Chap¬ 
ter XV in Dewey’s How We Think and Chapters XIV, XV, 
XIX in Charter’s Methods of Teaching. He will then be able 
to profit by a study of such detailed lesson planning directions 
as are found in the assigned readings without coming to grief. 
He will know that, once the lesson plan has been formulated 
in all its details and his own thought clarified thereby, the 
best thing for him to do is to lay the formal, logical plan 
aside and concentrate his attention during the development 
of the lesson upon taking advantage of every opening which 
presents itself favoring the solution of the problem, irre¬ 
spective of its place in the logical arrangement previously 
made. He must, of course, keep in mind the problem, the 
general plan of attack which he has formulated for securing 
the solution, and see that the supposed solution meets the 
test of verification thru utilization in further experimenta¬ 
tion. He must also have his materials and tools prepared and 




THE LESSON—ITS COMPONENT PARTS 


167 


ready just as far as this can be anticipated. He must have 
some system for the effective management of the class so that 
he may take advantage of all such administrative devices 
as will aid in the successful solution of the problem under 
consideration. 

6. Instructive Question Rather than Directive State¬ 
ment. As far as possible the preliminary and instructive 
question should be used in the setting and in the solution of 
a problem rather than directive statement, “telling as little 
as possible, and inducing the pupils to discover as much as 
possible.” Of the two extremes, never telling anything and 
always telling everything, neither is better. Even in the most 
intricate situation it is possible by means of preliminary and 
instructive questions to vitalize a demonstration as it cannot 
be done by mere direction and at the same time cause no 
loss in the matter of presentation. For example, let it be 
the problem of conveying the idea of the need for making 
working drawings in beginning shopwork. The teacher may 
convey the idea by a statement of fact as he sees it. He may 
convey the same idea by asking if any boy in the class has 
ever seen a mechanic looking at a blue paper with white 
lines on it and from this beginning thru other preliminary 
instructive questions develop the idea of need for drawings. 
The second method is superior to the first in so many ways 
that it is surprising that manual and industrial arts teaching 
makes no more use of it than it does in actual practice. There 
are times, of course, when it is quite evident the pupils will 
have to be told. Even here the preliminary question within 
certain limits is of value. It serves to impress upon each boy 
the fact that he does not know and that he must attend to 
instruction or demonstration as it has to do with that particular 
thing. It becomes an aid in preparation. 

Preliminary and instructive questions are of the greatest 



168 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


aid in the proper maintenance of discipline or conduct. Only 
as pupils are participants are they attentive to the work in 
hand. A good teacher not infrequently asks questions as he 
demonstrates for no other reason than to cause his class to 
feel that they are a necessary part of the demonstration. That 
is, he may know that they have no adequate answer for the 
various steps in the first making of a mortise-and-tenon 
joint, but he questions as he demonstrates nevertheless. Of 
course the questions must be sensible or reasonable ones and 
have a direct bearing on the work in hand. 

7. Intermediate Plan Form. The type outlines in Ap¬ 
pendix II give the first and largest outlook of subject-matter 
for teaching purposes. Coordinate with Method of Presen¬ 
tation are more detailed factors o.f organization which, to a 
certain extent depend upon the method of presentation and 
vice versa. These may be considered in what, for want of 
a better name, may be designated Intermediate Plan Form. 
The following are the factors to be considered: 


Subject 


Tools 


Group or Block 
Processes or Sequence 
of Operations 
Method of Instruction 
Projects to Cover 


Materials 

Correlations 

Cost 

Sketches (Teacher’s) 

Reading References (for Teachers) 


The outline may be as follows: 


Example 1. 

Subject-. Story Telling; Expressional or Illustrative Hand¬ 
work. 

I. Group. Paper Cutting and Poster Making, Stories, 
Grade I. 

II. Projects. Various incidents connected with the Story of 
the Three Bears. 

III. Processes. Paper cutting, mounting cuttings. 

IV. Method of Instruction. 

Story of the Three Bears developed by members of the 
class, if possible. If not, to be told by teacher. By ques- 



THE LESSON—ITS COMPONENT PARTS 


169 


tion and answer, develop idea of incident or incidents to 
be illustrated. 

Develop ideas of number of bears, sizes, etc. 

Develop idea of number of chairs, sizes and condition, 
etc., those things which are to enter into illustrating the 
incident chosen or agreed upon by the children. 

Which bear’s chair was damaged most? How will it 
look? etc. 

How do chairs look? How do bears look? 

Develop the desire on the part of the children to make 
cuttings. 

Develop the idea of relative spacings and placmgs of the 
objects which are to make up the incident. T nstruct the 
class about the cutting. Show the class how the pasting 
is to be done. 

V. Tools. Scissors. 

VI. Materials. Rough gray paper, or scrap paper; paste. 

VII. Correlations. Language, number work, nature, home in¬ 
terests. 

VIII. Cost. lc or less. 

IX. Sketches. Teacher’s sketches or cuttings to illustrate, 
when necessary, certain obscure parts or facts or forms. 

X. Reading References. 

Example 2. 

Subject: Technical Manual Arts. 

Paper and Cardboard Construction, Grade I. 

I. Group. Mounting Folders. 

II. Processes. Cf. Buxton and Curran, Paper and Cardboard 
Construction, p. 19. 

III. Method of Instruction. 

Develop the idea of need for folders; a means of caring 
for story cuttings, etc. 

Demonstration of new processes in detail. 

IV. Projects. Single-fold folder. 

Double-fold. 

Triple-fold. 

V. Tools. Scissors; rule marked only in inches; pencil. 

VI. Materials. Rough gray cover paper, 6x9; paste. 

VII. Correlations. 

Folder to hold expressional manual arts work in 
language, etc. 

Number work. 

VIII. Cost. 

IX. Sketches. Single-fold, double-fold, triple-fold; dimen¬ 
sioned. 

X. References. Buxton and Curran, Paper and Cardboard 
Construction, pp. 18, 19, etc. 

8. Daily Lesson Plan. With the larger outline plan 
showing in a general way the proposed arrangement of sub- 





170 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


ject-matter for a year or a number of years, and the interme¬ 
diate plan showing the essential factors necessary for a proper 
preparation in the way of equipment, methods, correlations, 
etc., further detailing might seem unnecessary. Teaching ex¬ 
perience, however, will make clear that it is necessary or at 
least advisable to prepare a daily lesson plan. 

Slavish dependence upon form, it is true, makes for loss 
of vitality in teaching, just as in any other kind of endeavor. 
A certain preacher in a large city in the Mid-West once asked 
another preacher of the same city how it happened the second 
preacher always had good audiences while he himself did not. 
“I work diligently on my sermons,” the first preacher said, 
“and carefully write them out in full. Why is it I cannot 
hold my audiences, and how do you manage to hold yours?” 
“You read your sermon?” the second preacher asked. “Yes.” 
“Well,” the second preacher said, “I can only state that I, 
too, carefully prepare my sermons, even to writing them out 
in full. However, I never take a manuscript into the pulpit. 
At most, I make use of only a few key words as notes to 
assist memory. These, I place in an inconspicuous place and 
follow them thru casual glances rather than thru direct ex¬ 
amination. If I have any success, it must be due to this.” 
It is so in teaching. Slavish dependence upon notes, outlines, 
and textbooks “killeth the spirit.” On the other hand, the 
spirit is not likely to exercise itself very effectively unless 
careful preparation has been made beforehand. 

The form which follows is one taken from the author’s 
Correlated Courses in Woodwork and Mechanical Drawing. 
Lesson Outlines, p. 105. Any adequate understanding of 
it will necessitate reading pp. 68-70 of the same text. 

(Woodworking Group V.) 

Recitation : 

How to proceed where there are two or more like parts? 



THE LESSON—ITS COMPONENT PARTS 


171 


Jhe aim in handling the different tools in duplicate work? 
Illustrate. 

How hold the hammer? Illustrate. 

Nails—How made originally? Forged and cut? 

How are wire nails made? 

Two classes and three kinds of nails? Differences? 

History or meaning of 10-penny, etc.? 

How else are nails designated? 

Preparation for Demonstration : 

Assignment for Lesson 26 in Essentials of Woodworking, sec¬ 
tions 67, 68, 69. 

Demonstration : 

Nailing position; withdrawing nails; setting nails. 

Work : 

Group V. 

The immediate problem here is one of learning to nail, 
withdraw nails, set nails in order the better to construct a box. 
The solution is to be attained by (a) getting the pupils to 
refresh their minds thru a more or less formal review of 
some of the material developed in a lesson immediately pre¬ 
ceding, which material is needed as a basis for the presenta¬ 
tion of materials of the new lesson, (b) Thru suggestions 
contained in pictures and thru the reading of that portion of 
a text bearing upon this immediate problem, new ideas are 
presented and preparation is made for still another method 
of approach, namely, the demonstration. The demonstration 
presents to the mind of the boy thru the eyes, and, as the 
teacher explains, thru the ears, what he more or less imper¬ 
fectly got thru the readings and pictures. The readings and 
demonstration give to the boy the benefit of race experience 
as it has to do with this particular problem and make it possi¬ 
ble for him thereby to reduce chances for error to the lowest 
possible terms, (c) The boys next go to the benches and 
work out the instruction in proper “form” of nailing, etc., 
thru trial and error. 

In the above mentioned lesson we might have considered 



172 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


we had a complete lesson, namely, (1) the problem; (2) the 
solution; (3) the application. Most manual and industrial 
arts teachers make use of this type of lesson solely and con¬ 
sider their task completed upon the completion of a series of 
such lessons. It is better, however, that we consider such 
a lesson as incomplete as to the cycle making for the highest 
type of education. We may consider that we have steps (1) 
and (2)—the problem and its solution, the making of the 
particular box mentioned being merely a part of the solu¬ 
tion, namely, execution as differentiated from information. 
Application, as conceived by Dewey, does not find a place in 
this particular lesson. Opportunity for applying the informa¬ 
tion and skill developed in the above lesson, to the working 
out of new and original situations based upon this instruction 
and experience must come in later lessons. As such, this 
lesson serves well to point out the significance of a statement 
previously made, that not every lesson needs be a completed 
whole, and that certain lessons for a rather extended period 
of time may be formulated looking for the completion of their 
cycle in the future. In this lesson we have emphasized in¬ 
struction in conventional method of procedure; the activity 
consisted merely in trying to put the technical information into 
effect under the direction of the teacher; opportunity for cre¬ 
ative effort based upon this instruction is postponed. There 
is a danger, of course, in too extended a postponement. 

An examination of daily lesson outlines, such as can be 
found in other texts, will show that a number of forms are 
possible. The essential thing is not that the young teacher 
follow the form of any one person, but that he be made to see 
the necessity for some kind of a form such as will enable him 
to present his lessons from day to day with intelligence and 
understanding, not only each day’s work, but each day’s work 
with reference to preceding and succeeding days and the 



THE LESSON—ITS COMPONENT PARTS 


173 


year or years as a whole. Education implies progression; 
progression implies forethought. 

9. Summary. Good teaching becomes of value just in 
proportion as the young teacher differentiates ideals, aims, 
and the details of preparation and presentation of subject- 
matter. Problems of organization of the larger blocks of 
subject-matter may well be left to organization and administra¬ 
tion; problems of detailed subject-matter and of method of 
presentation belong to teaching of manual and industrial arts. 

For purposes of analysis, the followers of Herbart divide 
a lesson into six parts: (1) preparation, (2) presentation, 
(3) comparison, (4) abstraction, (5) generalization, (6) veri¬ 
fication or application. Preparation consists in having pupils 
recall to mind certain previous information and experience 
which information and experience are necessary as a means 
of connecting up new information and experience with 
which it is desired to acquaint the pupils. Presentation in 
technical manual arts and in industrial arts consists in con¬ 
veying to the pupils new materials for assimilation as a basis 
for steps to follow. This is usually dope by means of the 
demonstration. Comparison consists in the association of one 
set of experiences with another or other sets. Out of this 
comparison comes abstraction of the common element and 
this in turn is followed by generalization. Verification or ap¬ 
plication consists in taking such derived rules, principles and 
ideals, and utilizing them as a means of reducing the time of 
experimentation in the meeting of new situations where the 
common element is present. 

The six formal steps are usually thought of as inductive in 
character. Not infrequently the teacher cannot or does not 
consider it advisable to wait for the children to make the 
comparisons, the abstractions, and the generalizations, but 



174 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


tells them; in such cases the method is deductive for the 
pupils. 

Not every lesson needs be inductive; there is a large place 
for the deductive type. 

The method of the six steps of the followers of Herbart 
is open to certain objections philosophically. A better con¬ 
ception is that in which the instructive process is 1 considered 
as “moving” and dynamic, rather than set or static. In this 
newer conception there is (1) the problem; (2) the solution; 
(3) the application. The young teacher, while he should plan 
no less carefully, should know that such planning is valuable, 
not as a cast iron mould into which the happenings of the 
lesson period are to be compressed, but rather as a means of 
clarifying his own mind that he may be the better prepared 
to take advantage of every opportunity which presents itself 
as an aid in expediting the solution of the problem under 
consideration by the class or group. 

The instructive question rather than the directive statement 
should be used in the presentation of lesson materials. Such 
preliminary and instructive questions will be found aids in the 
maintenance of discipline. 

Coordinate with the discussion of Method of Presentation 
are more detailed factors of organization, which to a certain 
extent depend upon method of presentation and vice versa. 
These are considered under what is designated, Intermediate 
Plan Form. 

Teaching experience makes plain the advisability of pre¬ 
paring a daily lesson plan in addition to the yearly outline 
and the intermediate plan. Slavish dependence upon form 
makes for loss of vitalness in teaching, just as in other kinds 
of endeavor; it “killeth the spirit.” On the other hand, the 
spirit is not likely to exercise itself very effectively unless 
careful preparation has been made beforehand. This is to 



THE LESSON—ITS COMPONENT PARTS 


175 


be accomplished in part thru the daily lesson plan. It is not 
essential that one particular form be adopted by all; it is 
essential that some form be used. Education implies pro¬ 
gression ; progression implies forethought. 


Reference Reading: 

McMurry: The Method of the Recitation, Chapters XII, XIV. 

Dewey: How We Think, Chapter XV. 

Charters: Methods of Teaching, Chapters XV, XIX. 

Allen: The Instructor, the Man and the Job, Chapters IX, 
XXX. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses, pp. 68-70, also note pp. 91-132. 

Class Discussion: 

1. Into what divisions will you plan your period given you for 
technical manual arts? 

2. Do you consider it advisable to have such divisions in ex- 
pressional manual arts, or manual arts as a means of teach¬ 
ing other subjects? 

3. Why is it advisable to have one division each set aside for 
the lesson—recitation and demonstration? 

4. What percent of the total time available may profitably be 
devoted to the lesson? 

5. Do you understand that a demonstration is guided wholly 
by instructive statements or is there a place for the in¬ 
structive ouestion ? 

6. Give examples showing the same problem deductively pre¬ 
sented and inductively presented. 

7. If a textbook is in the possession of each boy, what would 
be gained and what lost by having a reading of the sub¬ 
ject-matter relating to the demonstration before the demon¬ 
stration is given? 

8. If you were asked to choose a text would you prefer one 
treating* of processes in general or in connection with par¬ 
ticular projects? Why, or why not? 

9. Of what practical value is a knowledge of the six formal 
steps? What objections are there to their full acceptance? 

10. Develop a lesson plan after Professor Dewey’s conception. 

11. In what manner will the method of the lesson differ in in¬ 
dustrial arts teaching in the industrial school where boys 
are expected to enter low-grade industrial activities, and 
in industrial schools where the boys have time to take 

extended courses looking toward highly-skilled and di¬ 
rectorate positions? 



CHAPTER XIII 

CLASS MANAGEMENT-DISCIPLINE 


1. Maintaining Order or Discipline a Matter of Instinct 

as Well as of Training. Not infrequently one hears the 
expression, “Teachers are born, not made.” An examination 
of the elements of strength of teachers to whom such refer¬ 
ences are made will show that in the great majority of cases 
it is such teachers’ ability to govern boys and girls evenly 
and well that has attracted attention, and an enumeration of 
such elements of strength and weakness will reveal most of 
them as inborn. Bagley mentions the following factors which 
enter into the making up of what we call favorable teaching 
personality, arranged in what he considers their order of 
importance: (1) address (manner of meeting people); 

(2) personal appearance; (3) optimism; (4) reserve (dig¬ 
nity); (5) enthusiasm; (6) fairness (objective attitude); 
(7) sincerity; (8) sympathy; (9) vitality (vigorous person¬ 
ality) ; (10) scholarship. The following factors making for 
unfavorable teaching personality are also mentioned: (1) hesi¬ 
tation; (2) manifestation of temper before the class; 

(3) tactlessness (failure to get pupils’ point of view about 
trivial things; failure to utilize dormant tendencies; failure 
to “explain” to parents) ; (4) failure to institute definite order 
of procedure; (5) lack of “teaching voice” (shrill, high 
pitched; noisy; thin, feeble, with poor enunciation, monoto¬ 
nous delivery which puts to sleep.) While a teacher may, 
thru conscious control, modify unfavorable natural tenden¬ 
cies, he will never work so successfully nor so easily as one 
possessed of favorable natural tendencies. 

2. Successful Discipline, to a Large Degree, the Result 
of Thoughtful Management. Successful discipline, other 


176 


CLASS MANAGEMENT—DISCIPLINE 


177 


things being equal, is, according to Thorndike, the result of 
(1) keeping each child occupied with work which holds the 
interest of the majority of the class at least; (2) maintaining 
standards which make the majority of the class feel that they 
have to apply themselves if they are to receive the awards 
which go to good students; (3) making use of friendly 
rivalry; (4) placing individual responsibility, as in individual 
assignment; (5) having a time schedule and working to it 
at full steam ahead until the period is up; (6) having the 
work progressive always. 

3. The Law of Association Applicable to Control of 
Conduct. If a teacher wishes a pupil or pupils to react 
in a given manner to a given stimulus, he will see to it that 
conditions are so set that the desired reaction shall follow the 
given stimulus with frequency, recency, intensity, and result¬ 
ing satisfaction. If an undesirable connection has been formed 
it is to be broken thru disuse, or substitution, or inhibition. 

4. General Causes for an Unruly School. According to 
Bagley, the most frequent causes for an unruly school are: 
(1) harshness and unsympathetic treatment; (2) indulgence 
and weakness of control; (3) inadequate preparation and 
brief tenure of teachers. 

5. Specific Problems of Control. Experience as super¬ 
visor of practice teaching in manual arts will serve to point 
out the futility of trying to deal in any extended way with 
specific problems of control, elements of strength and weak¬ 
ness vary so greatly in young teachers. The chief source of 
difficulty is not that young teachers do not know what factors 
make for success and what for failure, but that they lack in 
ideals or standards. The development of such ideals is a 
matter of time and association and cannot be handed out 
ready made. If students have been accustomed to college 
teachers, whom they respect, talking, while teaching, with 



178 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


toothpick in hand, or hands thrust deep in trouser pockets, 
or cigarettes alight, they are likely, other things being equal, 
to have no higher standards when they go out to teach. 
There are a few things which most young teachers of technical 
manual arts may well be advised about. A number of these 
the author has treated in the assignment in Correlated Courses 
in Woodwork and Mechanical Drawing, pp. 65-68; the dis¬ 
cussion of a few others follows: 

In nearly every class there will be found the occasional fel¬ 
low who does not choose to follow instructions, or to make 
desired connections. It is the part of wisdom, whenever it 
can be done, for the instructor to go quietly to such a one 
and attend to him without attracting the attention of the class ; 
a softly spoken, kindly, but firm address is usually sufficient. 
If the challenge is an open one then the instructor, if he is 
wise, will single out the offending individual and treat him 
as an individual. Even where a number of pupils are guilty, 
singling out one is strongly advised. It does little good, ordi¬ 
narily, to scold a class, or to scold a few thru scolding a class. 
The fact that there are other guilty ones does not in any way 
excuse the one called out. He may be given to understand that 
he is responsible for himself alone, and that the instructor 
will attend to the others in his own time and way. Boys 
quickly learn that in union there is strength. The wise 
teacher will do well to deal with each individually. 

The almost universal resort of a young teacher in dealing 
with an offending pupil is to tell him to leave the room. 
Unless some provision has been made beforehand for the 
care of pupils so banished, the cure is worse than no atten¬ 
tion at all. Pupils so banished to the halls soon find com¬ 
panionship or at least leisure time for play. Resulting satis¬ 
faction usually follows, for in most communities, the severest 
punishment falls short of counterbalancing the pleasure or 



CLASS MANAGEMENT—DISCIPLINE 


179 


satisfaction which comes from class attention or notoriety 
and being sent to the hall with its leisure. A better plan is 
to have such an offending member seated at one side of the 
room where he cannot trouble his fellows, with nothing to 
do. After a short time at this “occupation” he will usually 
ask permission to return to his work; few boys can stand 
inactivity long. With such a request once made, the teacher 
can quickly determine whether the offender means business 
or not, and can act accordingly. This treatment is only for 
the occasional offender. If any considerable number offend, 
it is an indication in all probability that something is wrong 
with the teacher and his plans. Where reasonable interest 
abounds there is likely to be no problem of discipline for any 
considerable number. 

A very common source of trouble for a beginning teacher 
is his lack of foresight in instructing his class to the effect 
that when he asks a question of the class no boy is to answer 
aloud until his name is called. Boys of grammar school age 
like nothing better than to confuse a young teacher who asks 
questions of a class without preliminary instruction, by each 
and all answering and continuing to answer, ever louder as 
other members repeat. The confusion becomes deafening 
and the young teacher finds himself helpless because unable 
to make himself heard in the hubbub he unwittingly started. 

Children are quick to detect elements of strength and re¬ 
serve power in a teacher. They seldom or never as a class 
take for granted the possession of such elements except as 
they are manifested thru trial. They are strangely alert and 
intelligent concerning the justness or unjustness of a teacher’s 
rulings. They are strangely merciless toward a teacher show¬ 
ing signs of weakness and lack of character or reserve force. 
To maintain a proper balance between a freedom which will 
develop individual moral independence and a sense of social 



180 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


justice and at the same time maintain restrictions that will 
prevent license and interference with the teaching and learn¬ 
ing process, is no small problem. It is a problem which 
challenges the best of teachers. Withal, Thorndike’s state¬ 
ment with reference to interest may with equal propriety be 
applied here: “Get the right thing done at any cost, but get 
it done with as little inhibition and strain as possible.” Make 
use of authority, if necessary, but only as a last resort. At 
best, it is but a temporary measure to tide over until the pupil 
can be induced to want to do the right thing. 

6. Summary. An examination of the elements of 
strength and weakness of teachers in the matter of class man¬ 
agement will show that the great majority of these are inborn 
or instinctive. While a teacher may, thru conscious control, 
modify unfavorable tendencies, he will never work so suc¬ 
cessfully nor so easily as one possessed of favorable ten¬ 
dencies. 

Success in maintaining discipline, other things being equal, 
is the result of thoughtful management. 

The law of association applies to control of conduct. If a 
teacher wishes to have pupils react in a given manner to a 
given stimulus, he will see to it that conditions are so set that 
the desired reactions shall follow the given stimulus with 
frequency, recency, intensity, and resulting satisfaction. If 
an undesirable connection has been formed, it is to be broken 
up thru disuse, or substitution, or inhibition. 

According to Bagley, the most frequent causes for an un¬ 
ruly school are (1) harshness and unsympathetic treatment; 
(2) indulgence and weakness of control; (3) inadequate 
preparation and a brief tenure of teachers. 

With reference to specific problems of control, it may be 
said that it does little good to scold a class or to scold a few 
members thru scolding the class. Unless some provision has 



CLASS MANAGEMENT—DISCIPLINE 


181 


been made for caring for pupils so dealt with, it is poor 
policy to send pupils to the corridors as a means of getting 
them out of the room. A wise teacher will not put questions 
to a class without having first instructed them not to reply 
until called upon individually after a question has been put. 

It is well for the young teacher to remember that to properly 
maintain a balance between freedom which will develop indi¬ 
vidual moral independence and a sense of social justice and 
at the same time maintain restrictions that will prevent license 
and interference with the learning and teaching process, is no 
small problem. Make use of authority if necessary, but only 
as a last resort. 


Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, pp. 179-187. 
James: Talks to Teachers, Chapter XV. 

Bagley: School Discipline. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses , pp. 65-68. 


Class Discussion: 

1. Thorndike says, “The law of selective thinking applies to 
conduct.” State this law and explain its practical signifi¬ 
cance. 

2. State the law of suggestion as it applies to conduct, and 
explain its practical significance. 

3. Successful discipline is to a large degree the result of 
thoughtful management. The secret of success, other 
things being equal, is the result of (1) keeping each child 
occupied with work which holds the interest, at least of 
the majority of the class; (2) maintaining standards which 
make the majority of the class feel that they have to apply 
themselves if they are to secure the rewards of a good 
student; (3) making use of friendly rivalry; (4) placing 
individual responsibility, as in individual assignment; (5) 
having a time schedule and working to it “at full steam 
ahead” until the period is up; (6) having the work pro¬ 
gressive always. 

Make application to the manual arts indicating just how 
you expect to utilize each. 

4. Bagley mentions the following as general causes of an 
unruly school: (1) harshness and unsympathetic treatment; 
(2) indulgence and weakness of control; (3) inadequate 



182 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


preparation and brief tenure of teachers. Illustrate each in 
some specific manual arts teaching. 

5. Many young teachers, when sorely pressed, will send an 
unruly pupil out of the room into the corridor. Would 
you? Discuss. 

6. Pass judgment upon the rule so often found in elementary 
shops: “Talking is permissible so long as it does not in¬ 
terfere with the work.” 

7. Can. you see any possible danger in the young teacher’s 
putting questions to the class as a whole instead of to some 
individual? 

8. What do you expect to use as a final means of inhibiting 
undesirable tendencies? (Suppose corporal punishment is 
absolutely forbidden.) 

9. Which do you expect to employ, your authority as a teacher 

. or the innate sense of honor upon the part of the pupils 

to get results compatible with good scholarship and good 
citizenship? 

10. A shop tool is missed, would you make the class as a whole 
pay for it in case it cannot be found? (Collective repara¬ 
tion for collective offenses.) 

11. Do you expect to find the rules in college applicable in 
grammar schools? 




CHAPTER XIV 

STANDARDS AND TESTS 


1. Teacher Standards. Much work remains to be done 

before it can be said there is a scientific basis for teacher 
standards. The accompanying factors are considered by 
supervisors of Kansas City, Missouri, public schools in esti¬ 
mating the value of a teacher to the system. While the score 
card is made for teachers of all kinds of work, it ought to 
prove suggestive and helpful to the teacher of manual or indus¬ 
trial arts who cares to know what elements are being consid¬ 
ered by his superiors. One who forms a habit of thinking 
of teaching efficiency in terms of the various factors which 
go to make up such efficiency will be much more likely to be 
correct in his judgment than one who depends upon snap 
judgment. 


DETAILS OF RATING 

I. Personal Equipment— 

1. General appearance; 2. Voice; 3. Natural aptitude for 
teaching; 4. Accuracy; 5. Industry; 6. Enthusiasm and 
optimism; 7. Integrity and sincerity; 8. Promptness. 

II. Social and Professional Equipment—* 

9. Courtesy to associates, pupils and patrons; 10. Under¬ 
standing of children; 11. Ability to meet and interest 
patrons; 12. Interest in lives of pupils; 13. Cooperation 
and loyalty; 14 Professional interest and growth; 15 Daily 
preparation; 16. Use of English; 17. Accuracy of knowl¬ 
edge; 18. Breadth of scholarship. 

III. Administrative Technic— 

19. Care of light, heat and ventilation; 20. Neatness of 
room; 21. Discipline and governing skill; 22. Initiative and 
Self-reliance; 23. Adaptability and resourcefulness; 24. 
Self-control; 25. Tact; 26. Sense of justice; 27. Economy 
of time. 

IV. Teaching Technic— 

28. Definiteness and clearness of aim; 29. Skill in habit 
formation; 30. Skill in stimulating thought; 31. Skill in 
teaching how to study; 32. Skill in questioning; 33. Choice 
of subject-matter; 34. Organization of subject-matter; 


183 


184 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


35. Care in the assignment of lessons; 36. Skill in motivat¬ 
ing work; 37. Attention to individual needs. 

V. Results— 

38. Attention and response of class; 39. Growth of pupils 
in subject matter; 40. General development of pupils; 41. 
General influence. 

2. Standards of Pupil Accomplishment in Manual Arts 
by Grades. The following very excellent charting of hand¬ 
work accomplishment by grades appears in Handwork in 
Religious Education by Addie Grace Wardle, and is repro¬ 
duced here by permission of The University of Chicago Press. 
It should be studied in connection with the Outline for Grades 
I to VI, Outlines in Teaching Manual Arts, Appendix II. 

KINDERGARTEN : 

(a) Interest: 

1. Handling of material. 

2. Changing forms as accompaniment of pupil’s changing 
thought. 

3. Imagination basal. 

4. Nothing intermediate between idea and result. 

(b) Ability to be Cultivated. 

1. Free constructive ability. 

2. Not imposed plans, not value attached to results. 

3. Thinking naturally in art expression—tendency to ex¬ 
press in symbols as well as in words. 

4. Knowledge of simple forms and recognition of their 
representation. 

5. Recognition of simple colors and their use for blocking 
in representation. 

(c) Work to be Given. 

1. Free drawing with pencil—suggestions but not patterns 
—and free construction work. 

2. Crayola—rubbed surfaces out of which figures are cut. 

3. Coloring with crayolas within drawn patterns. 

4. Coloring prints. 

5. Simple water-color washes. 

6. Mounting of pictures. 

7. Border designs—simple. 

8. Simple paper cuttings and tearings. 

GRADES I-II 

(a) Interest same as above. A little additional value attached 
to results. 

(b) Ability to be cultivated: 

Readiness to illustrate ideas, however crudely—drawing 
used as a language. 





STANDARDS AND TESTS 


185 


(c) Work to be Given. 

1. Rapid use (molding) of materials, such as sand and clay. 

2. Border designs as frames, pictures and paper-cutting. 

3. Simple pictures for crayola, blackboard, and water-color 
work. 

4. Collections of colors, flowers, papers, etc. 

5. Paper-cutting and tearing and their mounting. 

6. Simple paper folding. 

7. Beginning of work in wood and reed. 

GRADES III-V 


(a) Interest: 

1. Not satisfied with transformation of material by imagina¬ 
tion. 

2. Results become important; permanency and use impor¬ 
tant. 

3. Intermediate means of attaining results, the object of 
attention. 

4. Organized activity (age of organized play). 

5. Larger use of tools—skill in use a matter of concern. 

6. Desire to represent truthfully and to picture different 
effects. 

(b) Ability to be cultivated: 

1. Use of patterns, designs—to shape materials as prede¬ 
termined. 

2. Care and skill in use of tools—ability to express a given 
thought with increasing completeness. 

3. Some intellectual control—thinking things out ahead. 

4. Discrimination of colors. 

5. Correct judgment of general proportions by the eye 
rather than by measurements. 

(c) Work to be given: 

1. Simple geometric relations of vertical, horizontal, and 
parallel as involved in simple drawings. 

2. Rhythmic arrangement in border and surface patterns. 

3. Pleasing arrangements within enclosed spaces, etc. 

4. Bilateral symmetry and its methods. 

5. Collection of samples for color groups. Discrimination 
in sorting colors. 

6. Arranging colors. 

a. Complementary color schemes. 

b. Value schemes. 

7. Appearance of objects in different positions. 

8. Modification of natural forms for designs. 

9. Interpretative images (type forms). 

a. Geometric relations. 

b. Animal forms. 

c. Plant forms. 

d. Forms of rectilinear and curvilinear construction. 

10. Simple map constructions. 





186 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


11. Coping-saw work. 

12. More difficult construction work. 

13. Beginning of written work creation. 

GRADES VI-VIII 

(a) Interest: 

1. Sustained purpose—a final end. 

2. Accuracy according to pattern or idea, conformity to 
reality. 

3. Interest in real life, deflection from school. 

4. Sympathetic interest in art activities of others—historical 
and practical. 

(b) Ability to be cultivated: 

1. Use of drawing as a means of explanation and descrip¬ 
tion. 

2. Clear, visual patterns. 

3. Orthographic reading. 

4. Rapid sketching. 

5. Accurate scientific sketching. 

6. Good taste in beauty of form and harmony of color. 

7. Knowledge of art history and art as a vocation. 

(c) Work to be given: 

1. Geographical drawings and map modelings. 

2. Flower and plant shadow pictures for foreshortening 
and delicacy. 

3. Blueprints (for nature study). 

4. Different arrangement of leaf, flower, or object drawn. 

5. Matching in water-colors the colors of plants, etc. 

6. Balancing in design, also more bilateral symmetry. 

7. Appreciation of demands and limitations of decorative 
work. 

8. Perfect matching of color by mixing of water-colors. 

9. Development of intensity color schemes. 

10. Representation of moods of nature effects. 

11. “Rapid descriptive sketches, well constructed drawings, 
truthful records of observations.” 

12. Completed pictures in pencil, crayon, or water-color. 

13. Careful constructional work. 

14. Advanced work in the crafts: bookbinding, woodwork, 
reed and raffia work. 

15. Landscape sand modeling. 

3. Specific Standards and Tests. No small amount of 
work has been done in academic work, along certain lines 
in an effort to provide a more scientific basis for evaluating 
pupil work. Scales of more or less value have been worked 
out for such subjects as composition, handwriting, number 
work. In manual arts little has been done toward setting 







STANDARDS AND TESTS 


187 


up uniform objective standards; each teacher has been a law 
unto himself, marking pupil work as his feelings dictated. 
It is highly probable that no perfectly objective set of stan 
dards of universal application can be secured. It is possible, 
however, to do something toward setting up certain standards, 
and an attempt will be made herewith to point out a method 
of attack which any teacher may use in his efforts to inject 
a little more science into his system, or lack of system of 
marking. In Chapter II, manual arts was differentiated into 
(1) expressional or motor expression, (2) technical or motor 
education. Technical manual arts or motor education was 
subdivided into considerations of form and technic, and exe¬ 
cution and skill. The distinguishing characteristic of motor 
expression was said to be spontaneity, that of form and technic 
was said to be instruction, while execution and skill were 
said to be characterized by trial and error. A third division 
of the manual arts might have been made, as motor expres¬ 
sion based upon motor education, the characteristic of which 
would be creative effort based upon knowledge and skill. 

The subject of standards and tests in motor expression or 
expressional manual arts may be dismissed with the state¬ 
ment that the pupil has done all that is to be expected in any 
given piece of expressional work when the idea or ideas to 
be expressed are clearly evident to other members of the 
class and when the pupil has exercised such technical skill 
as is needed for the purpose in hand. Evaluation of technical 
skill in expressional work will have to be determined in the 
light of the amount of technical training the pupil has had up 
to the time of the given expressional lesson. For example, 
let it be a fifth grade problem in “Sketches to Illustrate His¬ 
tory, Stories of the Romans/’ Appendix II. Certainly, such 
sketches, while illustrative, should not only convey the ideas 
intended with clearness and exactitude, but should also show 



188 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


a technical superiority over those of first grade in proportion 
to the amount or degree of technical instruction in drawing 
and representation. 

4. Standards for Form and Technic. Form and technic 
have to do with ideas and with instruction. The woodworker 
has a certain order of procedure in squaring-up a piece of 
stock, in laying out and making a mortise-and-tenon joint, etc. 
These methods of procedure are not arbitrary but are the 
results of race experiences in working wood wherein methods 
which reduce possible chances for error to a minimum have 
been evolved. Good form and technic represent the science 
of an activity, and have their basis in reason. 

What shall determine standards for form and technic in 
any line of endeavor? Evidently an analysis of trade prac¬ 
tice itself will give us such standards. Formerly, much of the 
form of the trades could be obtained only by word of mouth. 
Today much good work has been done and is being done in 
the matter of recording in book form the form of the various 
trades. Any good text, then, dealing with the principles of 
working the materials of a craft will provide proper standards 
for form as it has to do with that craft. 

There remains the determining of certain minimal essen¬ 
tials for each grade for each kind or type of school. What, 
for example, may we reasonably expect a boy to know about 
the principles of working wood after a year in the 7th grade 
with 23 ^ hours a week devoted to systematic working of 
wood? An examination of the Lesson Outlines, Correlated 
Courses , pp. 91-132, will indicate what one teacher thinks 
pupils may reasonably be expected to know after certain 
hours spent in certain grades upon certain kinds of work. 

5. Tests for Form and Technic. Since form has to do 
with ideas, in so far as relation of teacher to pupil is con¬ 
cerned, the oral and written quiz with final examination pro- 



STANDARDS AND TESTS 


189 


vide a test for form. The recitation, discussed in Chapter XII, 
is merely a testing of recollection of form thru the oral quiz. 

The reasons shop men neglect to test form are two—first, 
they fail to appreciate the need for having pupils hold in 
memory knowledge of correct form, and, second, the shop 
time is so short they dislike to utilize any of it for mental 

WOODWORK la 

Quiz No. 2. Name. 

1. Large squares of one piece of steel are called. 

. The long arm is called the. 

and the short arm the. 

2. Dividers are used for (1). 

( 2 ).... ( 3 ). 

3. Pencil lines are easiest removed from wood by means of. 

.should never be 

sandpapered. 

4. Four steps in putting a saw in order are (1). 


(3).... (4). 

5. In all duplicate work the aim of the worker should be. 

.before laying it down and taking 

up another. 

6. A wire gage for nails differs from a screw gage in that. 


7. 

Some of the parts to a 

lathe are (1). 

.(2)... 

(3). 

. (4). 

. (5). 

. (6).... 

(7). 

. (8)....... 

. (9). 

.... (10).... 

(11) 

. (12). 

. (13). 

. (14)-.. 


All shearing cuts in turning depend for success upon keeping the 
bevel or grind.to the surface cut. 

Fig. 24. Blank Quiz. 

tests. The argument for having pupils “keep the memory 
processes open” as regards form and technic will be presented 
in the chapter following. Fig. 24 is an example of a blank 
quiz, the use of which makes the element of time utilized for 
testing form a negligible one. Such quizes are made out by 
the teacher in multigraphed form. The student has merely 
to fill in the appropriate word or words. The exact words 
of the text are not demanded, but only such words as convey 
the proper meaning. Such tests can be completed in not to 
exceed five minutes. Pupils who cannot complete them in a 






































190 TEA C HING MANUAL AND IND U ST RIAL AR TS 

reasonable time should be required to hand them in anyway. 
Not infrequently the time required to answer is indicated upon 
each paper and the paper weighted somewhat accordingly. A 
second advantage of the blank quiz lies in the ease with which 
it can be graded. The teacher merely marks the errors, counts 
them and the number so resulting serves to rank the student 
among his fellows. 

Such tests should not be mistaken for other than tests of 
memory, or recollection of form. A second test, a test for 
technic, which is form in use, should consist of observation 
at stated intervals of the manner in which students apply 
this knowledge in execution. It is possible that so high a 
correlation exists between application of proper form, or 
technic, and excellence of material result that such observa¬ 
tional tests may safely be omitted. Teaching experience seems 
to indicate the advisability of such observational tests, espe¬ 
cially with the younger pupils. 

6. Standards and Tests for Skill in Execution. The 
factors which enter into the making of excellence in execution 
are many. So many, in fact that the only hope of constructing 
a workable set of standards and tests lies in the ability to 
discover correlations between factors such that the number 
may be reduced to a reasonable set. The factors most com¬ 
monly considered are (1) speed, (2) accuracy, (3) neatness. 
Only in the most general and unscientific way have standards 
been set for any of these factors for various grades of vari¬ 
ous kinds of schools. It may be that it is not possible or 
desirable to reduce manual arts to the necessity of meeting 
the demands of standards and tests of a scientific character. 
Certainly there is need for more uniformity as to standards 
and tests than now exists in manual arts teaching. 

Standards for time exist in practically all kinds of trade 
work. Any hand-book on cost data will give standard time 



STANDARDS AND TESTS 


191 


allowances for various kinds of work. For example, a car¬ 
penter is expected, standard time, to place 1000 ft. of 
2"x4" wall studs in 32 hrs.; 1000 shingles on plain roof in 
3J4 hrs., etc. Some men will place more, some less, but 
a reasonable time allowance is as given. Evidently, the tool 
for testing time is the watch or clock. This is what is known 
as an objective test; it is a matter of fact, not of opinion. 

Accuracy or skill in execution in the trades, we are told, 
must be 100% perfect. That is, a printer is not excused be¬ 
cause he has allowed only one misspelled word to creep into 
the final form of the book. Of course, among the different 
trades there are variations in requirements. Carpenters are 
not supposed to be satisfied with a joint unless it fits snugly 
at all points. A machinist may be required to work within 
the 1/1000 of an inch, a carpenter never. This 100% perfec¬ 
tion, then, is relative. What is meant is not absolute perfec¬ 
tion of standards, but perfection of attainment which approxi¬ 
mates closely standards set in the trades. Tests usually applied 
in woodwork are for accuracy of dimensions—length, width, 
thickness; for squareness; for straightness. Tests for dimen¬ 
sions will be made with the rule, tests for squareness with 
the try-square, tests for straightness with a straight-edge for 
objective test and by sighting with the eye for subjective test. 

Neatness is more difficult to measure. The eye alone is 
used to determine the general appearance of a project, whether 
plane marks are left on surfaces, whether arrises are kept 
sharp and clean, whether corners are split, etc. Only as the 
eye, or the mind back of the eye, is trained to recognize cer¬ 
tain standards of excellence is the test of value. 

Such personal elements as (1) attitude, (2) attention, (3) 
industry, are usually taken into account in grading a pupil 
for the month—they should not be considered in evaluating 
a given piece of work for neatness, speed and accuracy. Atti- 



192 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


tude, attention, industry, like neatness, are subjective, de¬ 
pending upon the ideals the individual teacher may have as to 
these matters. 

7. Illustration of a Method of Attack in Establishing 
Pupil Standards for Accuracy in Execution in a Given Spe¬ 
cific Project. A mechanic may be held to 100% efficiency 
in accuracy or skill in execution and time for accomplishment. 
In manual and industrial arts, some allowances should be 
made for the fact that the student is a beginner and not a 
mechanic. It may be found advisable, for example, on the 
first piece of woodwork to demand 100% accuracy in square¬ 
ness only, centering the attention upon this with the under¬ 
standing upon the part of the pupil that dimensions are to 
be made as large as possible, consistent with the 100% at¬ 
tainment in squareness. The element of speed may be 
neglected except in a very general way—a maximum time 
allowance may be made, after which the class is to move on, 
or be given a demonstration upon new subject-matter. 

The following example* will serve to illustrate a non-tech- 
nical method of attack in setting standards. As it is based 
upon only 66 student participants the results are not to be 
taken as absolute, even for the class of students specified. 
At least 1000 cases should be examined to give the results 
that are reliable. Sixty-six college freshmen, never having 
had any woodwork, were each given a board 6"xl2", sur¬ 
faced on two sides to in thickness. After a careful dem¬ 
onstration they were asked to plane the two edges straight, 
square to a selected and marked face-side, and parallel one 
to the other. They were told no board would be accepted by 
the instructor until there was 100% efficiency of attainment 
in these respects—that is, until the instructor could detect 
no light between try-square and edge and no variation in 

*Data arranged by L. R. Fuller, sometime Assistant in Manual Arts, 
University of Missouri. 



STANDARDS AND TESTS 


193 


width of board with the sliding try-square test. They were 
also told to take off no more shavings than absolutely neces¬ 
sary to secure the required result, that the student with the 
fewest shavings removed would rank highest 
The results tabulated were as follows: 

Amount removed from width in 16ths of an inch: 


2/16— 2 cases. 

12 

—* 1 cases. 

3 — 8 

13 

— 0 

4 —16 

14 

— 6 

5 —11 

15 

— 1 

6 — 6 

16 

— 0 

7 — 0 

20 

— 1 

8 — 6 

28 

— 1 

9 — 3 

31 

— 1 

10 — 2 

11 — 0 

46 

— 1 


Now, according to the Law of Probability, of Chapter VII, 
the distribution of these amounts according to the number of 
students involved will be as follows: 

2% used 2/16" of board or less 
23% “ 2/16 to 4/16" of board 

50% “ 4/16 to 7/16" “ “ 

23% “ 7/16 to 1 7/8" “ “ 

2% “ over 1 7/8 “ “ 

For the sake of convenience in combining rankings in 
several factors, we may arbitrarily assign certain numerical 
scores to each of these ranks as follows: 

Standards for scoring width of first exercise. 

2/16" or less =Score 1. 

2/16" to 4/16"=Score 2. 

4/16" to 7/16"=Score 3. 

7/16" to 1 7/8"==Score 4. 
over 1 7/8"=Score 5. 



194 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


In a similar manner, these students were instructed to make 
the two ends square to the face-edge and face-side taking off 
no more stock than was necessary to secure 100% accuracy 
in squareness. A careful demonstration was given, and the 
instructor accepted no piece until it failed to show any light 
between end of the board and the try-square blade. 

The results were as follows. 

Amount removed from length in 16ths of an inch: 


1/16— 2 cases 

9 

— 5 cases 

2 — 2 

10 

— 5 

3 — 2 

11 

— 5 

4 — 5 

12 

— 5 

5 — 2 

16 

— 1 

6 —18 

18 

— 2 

7 — 7 

8 — 4 

24 

— 1 


Distributing these length variations according to the Law 
of Probability the result is as follows: 


2% 

used 

1/16" of board or less 

23% 

u 

1/16 to 3/8" of board 

50% 

if 

3/8 to 5/8" of board 

23% 

fi 

5/8 to 1 1/8" of board 

2% 

it 

over 1 1/8" of board 

Assigning numerical score values we have 


Standards for Scoring Length in first exercise. 
1/16" or less =Score 1. 

1/16" to 3/8"=Score 2. 

3/8" to 5/8"== Score 3. 

5/8" to 1 1/8"=Score 4. 

Over 1 l/8"=Score 5. 

In a similar manner other factors such as time, neatness, 
etc., may be scored. 



STANDARDS AND TESTS 


195 


These scorings for each student may next be combined and 
the result will give each his ranking among his fellows. If 
an average is struck after combining, grades may be assigned 
as follows: 

l=Excellent. 

2=Superior. 

3=Medium. 

4=Inferior. 

5=Failure. 

Once having determined an objective set of standards for 
a sufficiently large number of individuals to exclude serious 



Fig. 25. Scoring Device for Woodwork Dimensions. 


effects from accidentals, a scoring device similar to that of 
Fig. 25 might be constructed for certain test problems to be 
given at stated intervals on predetermined types of work. 
This device is for scoring width of board in edge planing and 
length in end planing in the problem for which standards were 
just developed. The various boards of any class are merely 
laid upon the table, one edge or end against the stop and the 
proper score is read at the other edge or end. 

Fig. 26 shows a type of limit gage for commercial testing 
of commercial metal machine work. There are two limits, 
a maximum and a minimum. The piece of work to be tested 
must pass thru one but not the other. There is no reason 
the school shop should not possess and make use of the gages 




196 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 



used in the trades. Industry has objective standards for 
nearly everything—especially in manufacture. Industrial 
arts teaching must ever keep in 
mind such standards since the 
development of efficiency is the 
end and aim of all industrial arts 
teaching. 

Manual arts teachers too 
often have few standards or 
tests other than those derived 
from their feelings in the matter. 

With large classes and full 
teaching schedule they find little 
time or interest in developing 
more scientific standards and 

tests. The very least any young teacher can do is to make 
many visits to other shops in an effort to educate his feelings 
as they have to do with standards. The second thing is to 
set about developing a set of standards and tests which 
may be applied semi-occasionally, just as the blank quiz 
test is applied semi-occasionally. With enough teachers 
working together upon such similar tests, some sort of a 
standard for speed and accuracy in various types of work 
ought to result that will make for more just grading. The 
teacher’s first duty is to teach, of course; a teacher with 
proper information as to what pupils of a certain grade may 
reasonably be expected to accomplish will teach better than 
one who has no such conception. 


Fig. 26. Limit Gage for Test¬ 
ing Machine Products. 


8. Summary. Much work needs be done before it can 
be said that there is a scientific basis for teacher standards. 
Not a few cities have determined upon certain factors to be 
considered in attempts to evaluate teachers of their system 
for purposes of promotion. Manual and industrial arts 



_ STANDARDS AND TE STS _197 

teachers may be benefited by making a study of these factors 

Only in a very general way have standards of subject- 
matter requirements for different grades in different types 
of schools been set. 

In matters of standards and tests for pupil accomplishment 
within any given type of work, it may be said that the factors 
to be considered are, in a large part, those enumerated in 
Chapter II. In expressional manual arts, we may dismiss the 
subject with the statement that the pupil has done all that is to 
be expected in any given piece of work when the idea or ideas 
to be expressed are clearly evident to other members of the 
class and when the pupil has made use of such technical skill 
as is required for the purpose. 

Technical manual arts and industrial arts will consider 
form and execution as factors making for standards of pupil 
accomplishment. Form has to do with ideas and with the 
assimilation of instruction in conventional methods of pro¬ 
cedure. Analyses of trade practice will provide standards 
for proper form. Such analyses can be found in reputable 
texts dealing with the conventions of the craft under considera¬ 
tion. There remains the determination of certain minimal 
essentials of subject-matter requirements for each grade in 
each type of school. 

The oral and written quiz with final examination provide 
a means of testing form. Tests for technic, which is form in 
use, will have to be made by the teacher’s observing the pu¬ 
pils at work. Shop men neglect the testing of form and tech¬ 
nic, as a rule, because they fail to appreciate the need for 
having pupils hold in memory knowledge of correct form; 
also, because they hesitate to reduce the already brief shop 
time by taking time for mental tests, even where these have 
to do with the subject-matter of the shop. 

The factors most commonly considered in testing for skill 




198 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

in execution are speed, accuracy, neatness. Standards for 
time exist in practically all kinds of trade work. The means 
for testing time is, of course, the clock or watch. Trades 
claim to be satisfied with nothing less than 100% perfection. 
This does not mean absolute perfection of standard, for 
standards in trades are relative; it means only that nothing 
less than well-recognized minimum trade standards is accept¬ 
able. 

A mechanic may well be held to 100% efficiency, on the 
basis of trade standards, in both speed and accuracy in exe¬ 
cution. In manual and industrial arts some allowances must 
be made for the fact that the student is engaged in the learn¬ 
ing process. Instruction and speed attainment conflict. In 
presenting new subject-matter we may choose to emphasize 
accuracy or we may choose to emphasize speed, or we may 
balance the emphasis with a consequent falling off of effi¬ 
ciency in either. Schools, conducted properly, that is, with 
attention to learning as well as developing speed, cannot hope 
to compete with industry wherein the workmen have ceased 
to learn, but have all their time and attention for speed at¬ 
tainment. From such studies of student speed and accuracy, 
neatness, etc., wherein large numbers are considered, ever 
looking to trade standards as ideals, it will be possible to 
establish reasonable standards of attainments for students at 
various stages of their development in both speed and accur¬ 
acy. Human elements, too, such as attitude, attention, indus¬ 
try, should be taken into account in grading pupils for reward 
but not for grading product. 

Reference Reading: 

Sargent: Fine and Industrial Arts for Elementary Schools, 
pp. 21-25, 44-46, 77, 79, 128. 

Collins: Drawing and Constructive Work for Elementary 
Schools, pp. 75, 80, 85, 90, 94, 100, 102, 104, 106, 107. 

Leavitt: Examples of Industrial Education, pp. 191-200. 



STANDARDS AND TESTS 


199 


U. S. Army: Trade Specifications and Index. 

U. S. Army: The Rating Scale, Personnel Work in the United 
State Army, 1919. 

Class Discussion: 

1. State as concisely as possible just what subject-matter you 
think might well be considered as standard for primary 
grades, intermediate, upper grammar, and high school. 

2. Making use of the Kansas City “plan for measuring merit 
or efficiency of teachers,” score a number of manual or 
industrial arts teachers. If possible, visit and make your¬ 
self acquainted with the work of the drawing and manual 
or industrial arts teachers of the public schools. 

3. As yet, no one has worked out a set of objective scales 
or tests or standards for manual arts, as has been done 
for handwriting and composition in academic work. Every 
opportunity should be taken to find out how teachers of 
good reputation professionally are grading. 



CHAPTER XV 

CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE FOR PROGRESS 


1. Conflicting Aims in Education. A careful reading 
of the discussion of previous chapters of the book should 
have pointed the fact that education is confronted with many 
conflicting aims and ends and that what may be gained by 
over emphasis upon one line is counter-balanced by a loss 
along another line. When we stress instinct we neglect in¬ 
telligence, and vice versa. Theory, science, the general, knowl¬ 
edge, technic, form are opposed to practice, the art, the 
specific, doing, skill, execution. Referring to Fig. 29, the 
tormer have to do with connections between thought and 
thought, connections No. 3, Path No. 2. The latter have to 
do with either Path No. 1 or Path No. 3. Either of these 
latter connections tends to interfere with connections No. 3 
of Path No. 2. The general vs. the specific has been suffi¬ 
ciently discussed in Chapter VIII, Correlation and Associa¬ 
tion. Intellect vs. feeling will be discussed in Chapter XVI. 
Technic vs. skill will be found discussed in Chapter II. Other 
conflicting aims have also been treated; space will be taken 
in this chapter merely to point out some conditions which 
must obtain in manual and industrial arts if progress is to 
be made. 

2. Manual and Industrial Arts an Attempt to Provide 
a Better Balance Between the Abstract and the Concrete 
in Education—Between Theory and Practice. Fig. 27 
shows graphically the distribution of people in the state of 
Missouri engaged in the larger pursuits. From this it will 
readily be seen that by far the greater part of her people are 
engaged in the manipulation of concrete things rather than 
abstract ideas. To neglect in our schools the giving of oppor¬ 
tunity for technical experience and expression thru the 


200 


CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE FOR PROGRESS 201 


manipulation of concrete materials is to ignore the welfare 
of that vast majority of our people who will live by the manipu¬ 
lation of materials. “Improvement in one special power 
rarely, if ever, means equal improvement in general” Years 
of training in generalizations based upon haphazard concrete 
experiences will not help much when, in after life, the boy 


Number of thousands of persons occupied over to years of age 

SO too ISO ZOO Z50 300 ' SSO 400 4S0 


Agr/callure 
Mechanical Work 
Trade 

Transportation 
Domestic Service 


Male ■ 
Female ■ 
Male ■ 
Female ■ 
Male . ■ 
Female ■ 
Male s 
Female I 
Male m 
Female ■ 


Clerical Work 

Professions 

Mining 

Public Service 


Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 


Male i 
Female I 


Male m 
Female « 


Fig. 27. Distribution of Persons Engaged in Gainful Occupations in the 
State of Missouri, Census Report, 1910. 


or girl is brought face to face with the necessity for quick 
decision accompanied by prompt execution in a world of 
concretes. Indeed, such discipline may even prove a hind¬ 
rance thru having developed an attitude of mind which re¬ 
quires much time to consider all of the niceties involved in 
the passing of judgment upon derived abstractions, abstrac¬ 
tions interesting in themselves but of less moment at the 
time than the prompt execution of the task in hand. 

A paragraph from an article in the Medical Review of Re¬ 
views, September, 1915, reads: “Attentive control—the 
power of fixing the attention on one thing and then doing it 
to the exclusion of all others—is ‘the one aim of true educa- 







202 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


tion/ yet its loss is increasing at an alarming rate. We find 
more and more people who are victims of indecision, who 
cannot make up their minds.” If school life is to be devoted 
exclusively to generalities, to abstractions, and “mental 
capacity depends upon the concrete data with which it works,” 
need we be surprised to find indecision when the product of 
the school is brought face to face with the realities, with the 
necessity for dealing with concretes? “To learn by doing is 
to learn with the best aids psychology and science have been 
able to discover.” The remedy for a race afflicted with inde¬ 
cision is a liberal introduction of subject-matter which will 
give to the children plenty of specific experiences with such 
concretes as may be found in the practical subjects. If such 
school experience should do no more than continue the re¬ 
spect, interest, and pleasure which little children have in the 
manipulation of concrete materials, it would have better served 
the 95 per cent who must make their living by such manipula¬ 
tions than to have made them feel that theirs was a life of 
enforced drudgery. 

All industrial pursuits depend for success upon a recogni¬ 
tion and understanding of certain conventional methods of 
procedure coupled with an unconscious tendency to act, once 
the recognition of what comes next enters the field of con¬ 
sciousness, or is suggested thru reflex muscular control or 
feeling. The data of the practical subjects, habits of mind 
and body, the attitudes, are to be got only thru experiences 
with the data and methods of procedure common to such 
subjects. Accuracy of judgment developed in a study of 
formal logic is of little aid when judgment of a practical na¬ 
ture based upon experience with specific practical data is de¬ 
manded. Every child should have some experience along one 
or more practical or technical lines of endeavor. The greater 
the number of lines available for choice the better, provided 
they are well organized and well taught. 



CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE FOR PROGRESS 


203 


The author would be false to the subject did he not again 
call attention to the fact that, while most academic subject- 
matter deals too exclusively in generalities to supply a com¬ 
plete educational experience, manual training, as now taught 
by many with little or no qualifications for teaching the sub¬ 
ject, often deals too exclusively with the details of industrial 
experience. If manual training and industrial arts are to 
take the large place in the educational field which awaits them, 
they must so organize and teach their subject-matter that 
details of specific experiences shall be seen by the pupil in 
their larger relationships. Manual training and industrial 
arts teachers must remember that their subject is to be justi¬ 
fied not alone by similarity of subject-matter and similarity 
of method of procedure but also by the extent to which it 
enables students to formulate these specific experiences in 
terms of general principles and ideals. 

3. Need for a Scientific Treatment of Subject-matter. 
The man of so-called practical training too often is inclined 
to ridicule the efforts of the man engaged in making a study 
of the science underlying such practical activities. A few 
examples will serve to illustrate the need for scientific treat¬ 
ment of subject-matter. The following on “Tone Placement” 
is from a metropolitan daily: “Recently I heard a distin¬ 
guished singer. At first the voice seemed to have quite an 
unusual color. It seemed more like an instrument than a 
human voice. Little by little I became accustomed to the 
quality, and finally began to like it. I wish to speak of the 
placement of this voice. The best tones were of a medium 
quality and volume and quite satisfactory. But they were 
placed by Nature. I could tell that, because, if they had been 
acquired by the study of tone placing the singer would have 
employed her knowledge of tone placing on her high tones 
and would have been equally successful in producing a good 
high tone—at least a good F or G, which were, I believe, the 




204 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


tones she sang in a somewhat hit-or-miss manner. This un¬ 
certainty—hit or miss—was apparent in all her songs. Now, 
if this singer had known exactly how she was taking her 
good middle tones, she would sing the high ones successfully. 
If she would focus her breath above the upper front teeth 
and the roof of the mouth, she would produce a good tone 
every time. I am sure of this, because she gets a good tone 
sometimes. She would then guide her breath up and let it 
float out of an open throat—open above the larynx. If a 
tone sounds veiled, that is a sure sign it is not properly pro¬ 
duced. Placing a tone means that the vocalized breath must 
be carried up against the roof of the mouth. In this way 
resonance will be secured and clarity, the veiled sound disap¬ 
pearing.” 

Again, a carpenter of ten years experience presented him¬ 
self for an examination in carpentry. He was given a piece 
of 2"x4" and told to frame the side-cut for an octagon jack. 
Altho he could frame the side-cut for a jack on a square 
corner he was non-plussed when asked to frame the same 
cut on an octagon jack. Now, as a matter of fact, the car¬ 
penter who can frame an octagon jack side-cut, except by 
cut-and-try method is rare. Why? Not because the cut is 
a difficult one to make—it is no more difficult than the same 
cut for a square corner jack—but simply because he has not 
mastered the science of roof framing. He has been taught to 
think in terms of a certain specific type of roof, and the specific 
numbers to be used in framing that type rather than to think 
in terms of principles. 

These specific experiences are the necessary basis for the 
science or theory of an art but they do not in themselves con¬ 
stitute science. Only as these specific experiences are gen¬ 
eralized do they take the form of science. Science emphasizes 
selected experiences, Cf. Chapter X. 

Much so-called new manual training and industrial arts, 




CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE FOR PROGRESS 


205 


with its stressing of subject-matter only, is likely to cause a 
distinct educational loss thru its emphasis upon mere associa¬ 
tion rather than upon additional selection. The so-called 
practical manual arts and industrial arts which take the form 
of chores about the home, repair work about the school, 
building of school equipment without due regard to proper 
principles underlying the activities, mere emphasis upon what 
to do with little upon why it is done that way, is of limited 
educational value. 

4. Limitations Which Arise from Undue Emphasis up¬ 
on Theory or Science. If the practically trained man has 
his weaknesses, the scientifically trained man, with no basis 
for his science or theory in practical experience, is also sub¬ 
ject to serious handicap. This is the greatest cause for weak¬ 
ness in our academic system of education as it is constituted 
today. Educators, recognizing as they do the great value of 
theory, science, take little children and from first grade thru 
university, strive to stuff them with principles, rules, theory, 
science, abstraction. Eight years of grammar school, four 
years of high school, four years of college, and possibly three 
more years of graduate work—all devoted to an attempt to 
master rules, principles, science, is a rather wasteful process. 
Lacking a suitable basis in practical experience, the thinking 
becomes one of memory, of association rather than reason 
or selection, to a large extent. An examination upon subject- 
matter covered will prove that only a very small part of that 
studied is remembered to the end of the preparatory period. 
Even if all the rules and principles were remembered and 
understood there would still remain the necessity for educa¬ 
tion thru feeling which we have tried to point out is no small 
part of a complete education. A boy may be taught all the 
science of riding a bicycle or of flying the aeroplane; only 
as he has opportunity for forming the necessary muscular 
adjustments thru riding the bicycle or flying the aeroplane 




206 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


can we say that his education in these respects is complete. 

Science, technic, form, cannot in any way serve as a sub¬ 
stitute for trial and error in execution; what it can do is to 
reduce the number of trials thru reducing the chances for 
error to the lowest possible number and providing the con¬ 
necting link so that one set of specific experiences may func¬ 
tion in another set, in so far as reduction of chances for error 
is concerned. The carpenter who knows how to frame a 
side-cut for a jack of a square corner roof, will not be non¬ 
plussed when asked to frame a side-cut for an octagon jack 
if he knows the science of roof framing. A pupil who has 
merely studied roof framing principles, without applications 
of any kind will find himself non-plussed when he tries to 
frame an octagon jack, in a way the carpenter is not. All 
the science in the world about roof framing will not make it 
possible for the student to frame an octagon jack without 
the same trials and errors for muscular adjustment that the 
carpenter experienced in his earlier days. 

Theory or science, then, is of value only when applied. 
Too long continued attention to theory without application 
makes for lack of meaning in theory. Both theory and appli¬ 
cation alternating at not too infrequent periods are necessary 
to a vital educational experience. 

5. The Place of Texts. Not a few manual and indus¬ 
trial arts teachers, taking their cue from certain so-called 
practical men of the trades, ridicule the use of texts in shop 
classes. Manual training and industrial arts, they say, are 
in the schools as a protest against a bookish education. If 
academic education has over-emphasized a study of rules, 
principles, theory, manual and industrial arts will not better 
the situation by going to the opposite extreme and emphasiz¬ 
ing feeling or direct interpretation to the exclusion of attention 
to the science underlying the subject-matter with which they 
are dealing. 



CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE FOR PROGRESS 


207 


Texts in manual arts are of two kinds: (1) Those which 
deal with the principles of working the materials of any 
given craft not as principles but as specific directions in con¬ 
nection with some specific project or projects. The principles 
of squaring-up stock, for example, are not treated as such but 
are treated as steps in making a specific project, as a taboret. 
(2) Those which deal with principles only, projects and the 
project operation sheets being given on a separate form. It 
should be recognized that a treatment of subject-matter which 
fails to dissociate principles from specific projects is of less 
value in certain ways than one which causes the pupil to think 
in terms of principles so dissociated. A pupil who follows 
specific project directions is doing associative thinking not 
selective. While he will or may succeed on a given project 
better than one whose directions are to be got from general 
principles, he will most likely be non-plussed when a different 
project with similar principles involved is presented him. 

“Language, written and spoken, serves to connect theory 
and practice.” A properly written text is a good teacher’s 
tool for the economical connecting of theory and practice. 
Only as the memory processes are kept open is it possible to 
make theory function in practice. Only as the memory pro¬ 
cesses are kept open is it possible to effectively adjust one’s 
self to new situations thru knowledge. Textbooks dealing 
with principles afford a tool whereby the individual may keep 
memory processes open thru study and review. 

6. Race Progress Demands that a Balance be Main¬ 
tained Between Conflicting Aims. The complete educa¬ 
tional experience involves experience with specific concretes; 
out of these experiences thru contradictions should come ab¬ 
straction and generalizations in the form of rules, principles, 
theory, and science. The third step consists in the applica¬ 
tion of these rules, this science or theory to new situations. 



208 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


Race progress demands that a balance be maintained between 
conflicting aims, such as theory and practice, etc. 

As in the discussions of previous chapters, so in this, what 
has been said must be taken as the result of an approach from 
the psychological or individualistic point of view. There is 
stili to be considered the social and economic and ethical 
approaches. 

Social and economic considerations necessitate the 
further statement that maintenance of balance in conflict of 
aims making for race progress does not depend upon the 
maintenance of balance of these factors in individuals. In 
fact, race progress appears to be most favored when indi¬ 
viduals and classes do not maintain balance but specialize. 
Some men may become the thinkers, some doers in the world’s 
work. In the long run, however, there must be a balancing 
of individual or class specialist of one type against individual 
or class specialist of opposite type—not in numbers but in 
the meeting of social need. Social and economic considera¬ 
tions, then, afford the basis for justification for the education 
of types not recognized as wholly or highly desirable from 
the standpoint of psychology or of the individual. It is on 
this latter basis that we allow and encourage the training for 
the three types of reactive needs—the common laboring, the 
skilled, the director. 

In the recognition of the place of these three types of 
reactive needs in education and in the granting of the just¬ 
ness of differentiation in awards on the basis of educational 
investment, it should not be taken for granted that the pres¬ 
ent situation as to the relative amounts of awards is approved. 
Undoubtedly members of the laboring class, in most com¬ 
munities, are not receiving a just share comparatively. A 
section hand who labors ten hours a day, on work that must 
needs be done, at a rate of one dollar ?nd seventy-five cents 
a day, certainly is not getting a fair share from railroad re- 



CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE FOR PROGRESS 


209 


turns in which the president is paid one hundred thousand 
dollars per year. The section hand usually has the larger 
family, and human needs as to food and clothing, medicines, 
etc., have a minimum limit below which they cannot go with¬ 
out causing harm to the individual, his family and indirectly 
to the social order itself. 

The remedy for such unjust distribution, in the absence of 
sufficiently compelling ethical motives, is being found in col¬ 
lective bargaining of labor. Here again is seen a need for 
balance. Collective bargaining finds its strength in numbers. 
So long as its demands are not unjust—are such as to allow 
difference in award sufficient to encourage greater educational 
investment upon the part of individuals—all will be well. Once 
let the power in numbers place all awards on the same basis 
and the race must deteriorate thru lack of individual initiative. 
There are certain well-recognized types of development. In 
every step in evolution, results have been brought about or 
have become possible thru variations suitably rewarded. De¬ 
stroy suitable rewards and man ceases to make the effort 
necessary to exercise initiative; he becomes an associative 
thinker instead of a selective. We say of an individual often 
times: he is vegetating. The inference is clear: progress is 
possible only thru effort; continued effort comes only thru 
suitable reward. 

7. Summary. Theory, science, the general, knowledge, 
technic, form are opposed to practice, the art, the specific, 
activity, skill, execution. The manual and industrial arts are 
the result of an attempt to provide a better balance between 
the abstract and the concrete, between theory and practice. 
An examination of the occupational data, such as may be 
found in the United States census reports, will make evident 
that many more people live thru the manipulation of concrete 
materials than thru the manipulation of ideas or abstrac¬ 
tions. Education should look to the training of indi- 



210 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


viduals along lines of materials manipulation as well as ab¬ 
stractions—the practical as well as the theoretical. Habits 
of mind and body, the attitudes, such as have to do with the 
manipulation of concrete materials, are to be acquired only 
thru experiences with data and methods of procedure common 
to such subjects. Theory cannot supplant practice; neither 
can practice, on the other hand, supplant theory. 

Not infrequently, the man of so-called practical experience 
is inclined to ridicule the efforts of the man engaged in mak¬ 
ing a study of the science underlying such practical activities. 
Specific practical experiences are the necessary basis for the 
science, or theory, or art, but they do not of themselves con¬ 
stitute such science. Only as these specific experiences are 
generalized do they take the form of science. Much so-called 
new manual training and certain kinds of industrial arts, 
with their stressing of practical phases only, are likely to 
cause a distinct educational loss thru emphasis upon mere 
association to the exclusion of selection. 

If the practically trained man has his weaknesses, the 
scientifically trained man, with no basis for his science or 
theory in practical experience, is also subject to serious handi¬ 
cap. Eight years of grammar school, four years of high 
school, four years of college, and possibly three years of 
graduate—all devoted to an attempt to master rules, princi¬ 
ples, science, is a rather wasteful process. Science, technic, 
form cannot in any way serve as a substitute for trial and 
error in execution—for feeling. Theory or science is of value 
when applied. Too long continued attention to theory without 
application makes for lack of meaning in theory. Both the¬ 
ory and application alternating at not too infrequent periods 
are necessary to a vital educational experience. 

Not a few manual and industrial arts teachers, taking their 
cue from certain so-called practical men of the trades, ridi¬ 
cule the use of texts in shop classes. If academic education 



CONDITIONS WHICH MAKE FOR PROGRESS 


211 


has over-emphasized a study of rules, principles, theory, man¬ 
ual and industrial arts will not better the situation by going 
to the opposite extreme in emphasizing feeling or direct in¬ 
terpretation to the exclusion of attention to the science under¬ 
lying the subject-matter with which they are dealing. Texts 
are of two kinds, differentiated according as they do or do 
not deal with principles dissociated from application to some 
particular set of specific projects. The former is somewhat 
more difficult for student and teacher to use, but is superior in 
that the student must learn to think in terms of selective 
rather than associative connections. A properly written text 
is a good teacher's tool for effectively connecting theory and 
practice. 

Race progress demands that a balance be maintained be¬ 
tween conflicting aims, such as theory and practice. Social 
and economic considerations necessitate the statement that bal¬ 
ance in conflict of aims making for race progress does not de¬ 
pend upon maintenance of balance of these factors in the indi¬ 
vidual. Some men may become thinkers, some doers in the 
world’s work. In the long run special groups of a given type 
must be balanced by equally strong groups of opposite type. It 
is on this basis of social and economic rather than psychological 
need that training in low reactive types as well as higher 
types is justified. Such recognition of a place in education 
for low reactive types as well as higher should not be taken 
as signifying unjustness of present differentiations of awards 
on the basis of educational investment. Neither should the 
granting of the justness of differentiation in awards be taken 
as implying the justness of relative amounts of awards as at 
present distributed. Undoubtedly, members of the laboring 
class, in most communities, are not receiving a just share of 
awards for effort. The remedy for such unjust distribution, 
in the absence of sufficiently compelling ethical motives, is 
being found in the principle of collective bargaining. Here 



212 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


again we need to maintain a balance. Appeals to power in 
numbers carried to the extreme of destruction of variations in 
awards will tend to eliminate originality and initiative. 

Reference Reading: 

James: Talks to Teachers, Chapter XIII, p. 150. 

Judd: Genetic Psychology, pp. 58-68, 136-147. 

Davidson: A History of Education, pp. 1-17. 

Dewey: How We Think, Chapters X, XI. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses, Chapter I. 

Class Discussion: 

1. Under what condition is progress most possible, emphasis 
upon theory or upon practice, upon the general or the 
specific, upon knowledge or upon action? 

2. State the limitations which arise when either extreme is em¬ 
phasized to the exclusion of the other for an undue length 
of time. 

3. Recent progress in Germany industrially has been due to 
a wise balancing of science (knowledge) and industry 
(action). Give some specific examples. 

4. How do we get our theory? What are some of the limita¬ 
tions of an education made up wholly of a manipulation of 
formulas, principles, and laws, a knowledge of which is got 
wholly from textbooks? 

5. Of what value is shopwork to engineering students who 
do not expect to have to do any great amount of shopwork? 

6 . Would you say that a system of handwork can be justified 
wholly upon the ground of skill of hand—ability to per¬ 
form readily certain highly specific operations? In gen¬ 
eral education or trade training? 

7. Rule of thumb methods need what else to make them worth 
while for general educational purposes? 

8. Can you see any place for texts in shop classes? State 
such advantages as you think may accrue from assigned 
readings upon related theory accompanied by recitations 
the following lessons. 

9. State such limitations as you see in the use of texts in 
shop classes. 

10. Judd says the teacher must “keep the memory processes 
open.” What does he mean? 

11. A man has worked fifteen years at his trade. Will he of 
necessity make a good teacher of his trade? Why or 
why not? 

12. A man without other experience graduates from a corre¬ 
spondence course in machine work, will he make a good 
teacher of machine work? Why or why not? 

13. State your conclusion as to theory vs. practice, knowing 
vs. doing. 



CHAPTER XVI 

BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 

1. Connections in the Nervous System of Man. The 

psychology necessary for the purposes of this book is simple 
and is best introduced in terms of the physiological counterpart. 
In the discussions which follow we are assuming that mental 
life or consciousness or thought or feeling is the counterpart 
of neural action or excitation. Since there are some 11,000 
millions of neurones or nerve current paths in the human 
body, the diversity and consequent richness of thought and 
action make it possible to use the analogies of a mechanistic 
psychology without necessarily having to subscribe in full to 
all its implications. 

In its simplest form the complete cycle of a neural excitation 
makes use of three neurones each performing a different func¬ 
tion, Fig. 28a: 1. an inbearing neuron, 2. an associate 

neuron, 3. an outbearing neuron. The beginning stage of the 
cycle we shall designate as an impression; its origin is in 
the processes of a sense organ or organs. The final stage of 
the cycle we shall call an expression. Expression is merely the 
result of nervous energy finding outlet in muscular or glandular 
processes of one kind or another. The middle stage, association, 
serves to connect impression with expression and its physio¬ 
logical counterpart occurs in what is called an association 
center. The nervous “architecture” in human beings is nothing 
more nor less than countless millions of these neuron arches 
superimposed one upon another and interrelated after the 
fashion of Fig. 28b. The term “lower nerve center” is used 
to designate those associative centers which act from present 
sensational stimuli only; their chief characteristic is lack of 
consciousness or awareness as a psychic counterpart of the 
neural excitation. Those centers which act from a feeling of 


213 


214 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


things as not present, and which have consciousness as the 
chief psychic counterpart of their action are called “higher cen¬ 
ters.” Geographically, the higher centers are, in man, literally 
the highest arches; the lower centers are in general situated 


Association 



Fig. 28a. Gross connections in the nervous system of man. 

lower. The student should, however, guard against striving 
to localize higher and lower centers except in a very general 

vvay. 

All forms of mental and physical life in man may be resolved 
into five types of connections or associations as follows: 

1. Connections between impression and expression, un- 
* learned, No. 1, Fig. 28a. 

2. Connections between impression and thought, No. 2, Fig. 

28a. 








BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


215 


3. Connections between one thought and another thought, 

No. 3a and 3b, Fig. 28a. 

4. Connections between thought and expression, No. 4, Fig. 

28a. 

5. Connections between impression and expression, learned, 

No. 5, Fig. 28a. 

Example of connection No. 1, impression with expression, 
unlearned: Anyone who has observed an infant before the 
growth of consciousness must have noticed that when an object, 



Fig. 28b. Nervous “Architecture” of a human being. 

such as one’s finger, is placed in the palm of its hand, the 
fingers will close about it. This represents what happens when 
connection No. 1 is made. Let us trace this happening upon 
the chart, Fig. 28a. We begin with the stimulation in the 
palm of the hand; this induces a nerve current which travels 
toward some lower center. The incoming nerve current finds 
a connection already made in one of the lower nerve centers, 
as in No. 1, Fig. 28a; it immediately makes a connection with 
an out-bearing neuron and induces an outgoing current. This 
current causes the muscular contractions of the infant’s fingers. 
We call this an unlearned connection, a reflex, or in a higher 











216 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


form, an instinct; it is ready-made. The adult, like the infant, 
has countless connections operating in this same manner. 

Example of connection No. 2, impression with thought: 
Let us suppose the word “Roosevelt” were to be pronounced 
within one’s hearing. The sound waves striking the drum of 
the ear will produce an impression. The processes in the sense 
organ of hearing induce a current which travels toward the 
higher centers of the brain and, as a counterpart of the exci¬ 
tation of brain nerve, causes the thought—“Roosevelt, ex-presi¬ 
dent,” let us say. Here we have connection No. 2, Fig. 28a. 
Or, suppose a pencil had been placed in the palm of one’s hand; 
no sooner is there an impression thru touch, than the incom¬ 
ing nerve current makes a connection with an association 
neuron, induces a nerve current in the brain, giving as a 
counterpart to the excitation, the thought “pencil.” It is an 
impression connecting with a thought. 

Example of connection No. 3, thought connecting with 
thought: In the case of the Roosevelt illustration above, when 
the thought, “Roosevelt, ex-president” arose, there would, un¬ 
less the attention was attracted elsewhere, follow another 
thought as, “Roosevelt, author.” Here we have one thought 
connecting with another thought, No. 3a, Fig. 28a. In the 
case of the pencil illustration, we might have had the thought 
“pencil” connected with the thought “hexagonal.” In the case 
of adults and educated people, one thought will usually bring 
in its wake a train of thoughts, as “Roosevelt—ex-president— 
author—soldier—Spanish-American,” etc., No. 3b, Fig. 28a. 

Example of connection No. 4, thought with action: Contin¬ 
uing the Roosevelt illustration, after one has thought “Roose¬ 
velt, ex-president—soldier,” etc., he would probably think, then 
ask, “What about Roosevelt; why did you speak his name?” 
Here we have thought connecting with expression. The nerve 
current of the brain, the counterpart of which was the thought, 



BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


217 


“What about Roosevelt; why did you speak his name ?” makes 
a connection and induces an outgoing current, which current 
causes the muscles of the mouth and throat to act appropriately. 
This is connection No. 4, Fig. 28a, except that the illustration 
shows an impulse going to the hand and causing it to act instead 
of the mouth. Thought connecting with thought we designate 
“intelligence” to distinguish it from instinct described in con¬ 
nection No. 1 above, and from habit about to be described. 

Example of connection No. 5, impression with expression, 
learned: Connection No. 5 differs from No. 1 only as to 
origin; for this reason both are represented by the same line, 
Fig. 28a. Both of these connections are made in the lower 
nerve centers; that is, centers below that part of the brain 
which has consciousness as the counterpart of nervous excita¬ 
tion. In connection No. 1 consciousness was never involved; 
in the case of No. 5 the current originally went up to the brain, 
made its association in that part which has thought as its 
counterpart, and then found outlet in action as in No. 4. With 
frequent repetitions of such current movements to the higher 
centers of the brain, there is a tendency upon the part of the 
current to short-circuit or break thru in the lower centers 
as in Fig. 28b. 1 Take the case of a physician who per¬ 
forms a skilful surgical operation: Originally mental effort 
is strong; by repeated operations this is reduced until reaction 
places almost complete dependence upon sense impressions. 
The moment his hand touches the scalpel and his eye observes 
the situation, appropriate action results practically without 
thought. He may carry on a conversation about something 
entirely different while performing the operation. Physio¬ 
logically, the associations once made in the higher centers of the 
brain with accompanying consciousness are now made in lower 
centers without it. This latter sort of connection we call “habit” 

1 Meyer, Max, The Fundamental Laws of Human Behavior, pp. 
98 - 109 . 




218 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


to distinguish it from No. 1, instinct, and No. 3, intelligence. 

2. Instinct, Intelligence, Habit. In order to understand 
the discussions which follow there should be a clear under¬ 
standing of the part played by instinct, by intelligence, and by 
habit in modifying or controlling action or expression. 



Fig. 29. Connections or Associations of the Human 
Nervous System. 


We may classify controls for action as of two kinds: 1. 
control thru feeling of relationships; 2. control thru intelli¬ 
gence. The former may be subdivided into (a) control thru 
unlearned feeling of relationships—instincts, and (b) control 
thru an acquired or a learned feeling of relationships—habits. 
The former are represented by Path No. 1, Fig. 29; the latter 
by Path No. 3. Control thru intelligence is represented by 
Path No. 2. 

As an illustration of the strength of controls thru instinct 
and of the relation of intelligence to instinct the following is 
quoted from Creative Evolution by Henri Bergson. 2 The author 


2 Bergson, Henri, Creative Evolution, Henry Holt & Co., 1911. 























BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


219 


is developing a philosophy of the function and origin of instinct 
and intelligence. “Instinct and intelligence” he says, page 143, 
“therefore represent two divergent solutions of one and the 
same problem,” namely, the problem of meeting one’s environ¬ 
ment. “We know,” he continues, page 172, in illustration of 
the strength of instinct or unlearned feeling of relationships, 
such as is represented by Path No. 1, Fig. 29, “that the dif¬ 
ferent species of the hymenoptera that have this paralyzing 
instinct lay their eggs in spiders, beetles, or caterpillars, which, 
having first been subjected to a skilful surgical operation, will 
go on living motionless a certain number of days, and thus 
provide the larvae with fresh meat. In the sting which they 
give the nerve centers of their victim, in order to destroy its 
power of moving about without killing it, these different species 
of hymenoptera take into account, so to speak, the different 
species of prey they respectively attack. The Scolia, which 
attacks the larva of the rose beetle, stings it in one point only, 
but in this point the motor ganglia are concentrated and these 
alone; the stinging of other ganglia might cause death and 
putrefaction, which must be avoided. The yellow winged 
Sphex, which has chosen the cricket for its victim, knows that 
the cricket has three nerve centers which serve its three pairs 
of legs—or, at least, it acts as if it knew this. It stings the 
insect first under the neck, then behind the prothorax, and 
then where the thorax joins the abdomen. The Ammophila 
Hirsuta gives nine successive strokes of its sting upon nine 
nerve centers of its caterpillar, and then seizes the head and 
squeezes it in its mandibles, enough to cause paralysis without 
death. The general theme is ‘the necessity of paralyzing with¬ 
out killing.’ * * * It is in vain that we try to express it 

in terms of any idea: It must have been originally felt rather 
than thought.” It is an unlearned feeling of relationships, as 
it were, having nothing to do with intelligence or thought. Its 



220 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


very strength lies in the fact that appropriate action follows 
this feeling of relationships without hesitation and consequent 
representation resulting in consciousness or intelligence. Re¬ 
sponses of this character are represented by Path No. 1, 
Fig. 29. 

Just what relationship intelligence has with instinct, or this 
unlearned feeling of relationships, may best be seen in another 
quotation from Bergson’s Creative Evolution, page 145. “The 
consciousness of a living being may be defined as the arith¬ 
metical difference between potential and real activity. It 
measures the interval between representation and action. It 
may be inferred from this that intelligence is likely to point 
toward consciousness and instinct toward unconsciousness. 
For where the implement to be used is organized by nature, 
the material furnished by nature, and the result to be obtained 
willed by nature, there is little left to choice; the consciousness 
inherent in the representation is therefore counterbalanced, 
whenever it tends to disengage itself, by the performance of 
the act, identical with the representation, which forms the 
counterpart. Where consciousness appears, it does not so much 
light up instinct itself as the thwartings to which instinct is 
subject; it is the deficit of instinct, the distance between the 
act and the idea, that becomes consciousness so that conscious¬ 
ness, here, is only an accident. Essentially, consciousness only 
emphasizes the starting point of instinct, the point at which the 
whole automatic movement is released. Deficit, on the con¬ 
trary, is the normal state of intelligence. Laboring under 
difficulties is the very essence.” 

An examination of the chart, Fig. 29, will serve to reinforce 
the point of view developed in the quotation. It will be seen 
that the rectangle representing intelligence, thought, or con¬ 
sciousness lies between the rectangle representing impression 
or feeling of relationships and the one representing expression 



BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


221 


or action; as such, it tends to delay action which otherwise 
would occur immediately as in Paths Nos. 1 and 3. 

It should not be hastily concluded from the discussion pre¬ 
ceding that there is no place, or only a small place, for intel¬ 
ligence. Whatever man might have gained by a biological 
evolution along the line of dependence upon instinct alone to 
the exclusion of intelligence, the fact remains that he has 
chosen to live more largely thru intellectual control than have 
hymenoptera and other insect and animal forms, and that at¬ 
tention to intelligence must ever play a large part in the 
education of his young and in his own attempts to meet his 
environment. In fact, there are those who object to the philos¬ 
ophy of “adjustment to environment” as an adequate concep¬ 
tion of man’s relation to the world in which he lives. To such, 
man’s intelligence is so superior that it rises immeasurably 
above physical limitations of environment. 1 This raises the 
question of the “freedom of the will,” which is dismissed with 
the statement that the present discussion follows the position 
assumed by Prof. William James in which he neither affirms 
nor denies but assumes a mean position. 2 

Adjustment to environment may be accomplished thru in¬ 
stinct, Path No. 1, Fig. 29; this same end may be accomplished 
by taking Path No. 2, intelligence, and by frequent repetition 
of the cycle of Path No. 2 reduce mental effort until the re¬ 
action comes about as in Path No. 3, habit. Habit accom¬ 
plishes for the individual what instinct accomplishes for the 
species: an effective reaction to stimuli without the interven¬ 
tion of thought, or at least it tends to accomplish this. Wit¬ 
ness the following: 

“While she is fingering the organ keys in all kinds of compli- 

1 Bergson, Henri, Creative Evolution, pp. 183-185. 

2 James, Wm., Psychology, Briefer Course, Henry Holt & Co., 1911, 
pp. 101-104; 237; 455-458. Also see Thorndike, E. L., Elements of 
Psychology, Siler, A. G., 1911, pp. 277-283. 




222 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


cated runs, to say nothing of managing several key boards and 
numberless pedals and stops, Mrs.- (organist in a met¬ 

ropolitan motion picture theatre) can carry on conversation, 
laugh and tell jokes without seeming to have her mind on her 
hands at all. They appear to take care of themselves and 

hurry along independently without a mistake. Mrs. —- 

says that it is no trouble at all for her to hum an air aloud 
or to herself while her fingers are playing something entirely 
different.” 

So long as the reaction called for is not new or novel, in¬ 
stinct and habit serve best. When the situation is new or 
novel, instinct and habit fail us except thru random experi¬ 
mentation, thru trial and error; it is in such situations that in¬ 
telligence comes to its own. It should always be remembered, 
however, that thinking is a means to an end and not an end 
in itself; the end is action made more efficient because of the 
thinking. 

3. Impression, Sensation, Feeling of Relationships, Emo¬ 
tion, Will. The term “impression/’ in this discussion, is 
used to designate the psychological and physiological effect on 
a sense organ or organs, of any kind of contact, thru movement, 
such as sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. An impression 
may be a sensation or a feeling of relationships. If the effect 
is simple or elemental it is called a sensation; if complex, a 
feeling of relationships. Both sensation and feeling of rela¬ 
tionships are, for purposes of analysis and classification, to 
be considered as outside the realm of intelligence. This classi¬ 
fication follows that of Bergson; and, as Bergson says, page 
136, ibid, “Let us say at the outset that the distinctions we are 
going to make will be too sharply drawn, just because we wish 
to define in instinct what is instinctive, and in intelligence what 
is intelligent, whereas all concrete instinct is mingled with in¬ 
telligence, as all intelligence is penetrated by instinct. * * * 





BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


223 


This rather narrow view of them has the advantage of giving 
us an objective means of distinguishing them. * * * For 

that reason the reader must expect to see in what follows only 
a diagrammatic drawing in which the respective outlines of 
intelligence and instinct are sharper than they should be, and 
in which the shading-off which comes from the indecision of 
each, and from their reciprocal encroachment on one another 
is neglected. * * * It will always be easy afterward to 

soften the outlines and to correct what is too geometrical in 
the drawing—in short, to replace the rigidity of a diagram by 
the suppleness of life.” In the present discussion instinct and 
habit are considered as functioning most perfectly when con¬ 
sciousness or thought, as a counterpart of the neural action, 
is least present. Instinct is considered as arising in uncon¬ 
sciousness and tending toward consciousness just to the extent 
it fails to function properly, that is, fails to bring appropriate 
action. Habit is considered as arising in consciousness or 
thought (which consciousness arose because of failure of in¬ 
stinct to function properly, as described above) and tending 
toward unconsciousness just to the extent that thought brings 
about effective reaction in a given situation with frequency 
and resulting satisfaction. 

Emotion, we have chosen to interpret as a feeling of rela¬ 
tionship due to the bodily state of the individual experiencing 
the emotion. Physiologically, certain feelings of relationship 
are brought about thru bodily changes, such for example, as 
the flushing of the face when meeting an embarrassing situa¬ 
tion, or choking with anger together with excretion from the 
viscera, or paralyzation in the presence of a fearsome situation. 
Emotion is the psychological counterpart of such bodily states. 
As Prof. James puts it, in Psychology, Briefer Course, page 
375, “Bodily changes follow directly the perception of the ex¬ 
citing fact, and our feeling of the changes as they occur is 



224 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


the emotion/’ Emotion, since it is a feeling of relationships, 
is classed under impression, Fig. 29. ^Emotions are among our 
strongest incentives to action. Like any other impression, 
emotion may find outlet into action or expression thru Path 
No. 1, instinct, or No. 2, intelligence, or No. 3, habit. The 
coarser emotions, such as fear and hate, tend to find outlet 
along Path No. 1. They may, however, be modified by intel¬ 
ligence or reason, Path No. 2, finally resolving themselves into 
reactions thru Path No. 3. The finer emotions, such as satis¬ 
faction thru having done a good deed, or pleasure in viewing 
a work of art, or in listening to a fine musical rendition, are 
in the main “states” brought about thru reactions along Path 
No. 2, intelligence, gradually developing into controls thru 
habit, Path No. 3. The following extract from an article in 
a daily paper well illustrates an emotional cycle: 

“I remember when I wrote my first ‘piece.’ I had just 
passed my twelfth birthday when I was called to the home of 
a playmate. His mother took my hand and led me into the 
room where the little lad lay in peaceful sleep after a terrible 
accident and explained that he would never waken again. I 
can’t describe how I felt, but music kept calling me and I 
slipped away and could not be satisfied until I had arranged 
the music that fitted the thing I could not express in words.” 

Here we have “the exciting fact,” the emotional state, and 
finally the expression, in this case thru music. 

A few words about “the will” seem advisable, altho, as we 
shall try to show, “power to will,” or perseverance, is taken 
care of automatically when situations are so set that attention, 
interest, desire for a given reaction are all pervading. Interest 
and attention are discussed in Chapter VI. Nature has so con¬ 
stituted man that appropriate action or expression will follow 
impression without delay, provided there are no inhibitions. 
Inhibitions are of two kinds: subjective and objective. Sub- 



BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


225 


jective inhibitions consist of conflicting ideas or thoughts which 
prevent the mind from having attention or interest fixed upon 
one idea or thought to the exclusion of others. Once let an 
idea get the center of attention to the exclusion of conflicting 
ideas, and corresponding action follows without delay, in so 
far as the mind is concerned. “The terminus of the psycho¬ 
logical process of volition, the point at which the will is applied, 
is always an idea.” 1 “Pure will influences acts only indirectly 
by influencing mental states.” 2 “Control of purposive action 
is the same as control of thought. The same selective agency, 
attention, chooses what thought shall determine action.” 3 There 
may, of course, be external obstacles, such as paralysis of parts 
or a worthy opponent to prevent consummation. Such external 
obstacles would be called objective inhibitions. Developing, 
“power to will,” then, consists in so setting a situation that at¬ 
tention, interest, and desire may be concentrated upon a re¬ 
quired thought such that inhibiting ideas shall be forced to 
the marginal limits of consciousness. 

In Chapter III three types of reaction are described; in 
Chapter X are three types of thinking; “power to will” may 
well be classified in terms of these three types. Type one 
would be the lowest and would be characterized as a type of 
will so weak that we would say the individual “had no will.” 
Intelligence is so weak, the ability to attend to one idea to the 
exclusion of other competing ideas for any length of time so 
low that expression is erratic and unreliable. The individual 
“goes off half-cocked,” as it were; actions are more or less 
random and without purpose. There may be little action or 
expression because no one idea ever gets possession of 
consciousness to the exclusion of others, or there may be an 


1 James, Wm., Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 455. 

2 Thorndike, Elements of Psychology, p. 280. 

3 ibid, p. 279. 




226 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


excess of action because instinct is left free to work its own 
“will” while ideas are struggling for expression. 

Type of will number two is well illustrated in the following 
naive psychological analysis by a certain retail merchant. When 
asked why he was spending $25,000 to drop the floor of his 
store three inches he said: “I expect that to be returned to me 
many times within the next six months. We spend hundreds 
of dollars in decorating our windows just to draw people’s at¬ 
tention to our store. When they look in the window, it is a 
natural impulse for them to want to get a rear view of what 
they have seen from the front, and they slide around the corner 
of the window. With a step there, they are likely to trip. This 
creates a disagreeable feeling on the part of the potential cus¬ 
tomer and makes him hesitate. And then the question, ‘Do I 
want to go in, or don’t I ?’ arises. If the floor is on the street 
level, they unquestioningly go around the corner, and the first 
thing they know they are in the store.” 

Here the merchant sets the situation so as to cause the passer¬ 
by to have but a single thought and he arranges it so that no 
other idea shall enter his head, such as would come thru trip¬ 
ping on the step, confident that the desired action will care for 
itself if he can only prevent other ideas from getting posses¬ 
sion of the center of attention established by the window dis¬ 
play. In Chapter X we call this type of thinking select-asso¬ 
ciative. The third type of “willing,” like the thinking which 
brings it about, is the highest. This type is characterized by 
sound judgment brought about by comparing many known 
facts in the case and arriving at such a decision that all irrele¬ 
vant ideas are forced into the marginal regions of consciousness 
because of its strength. Appropriate action follows attention 
so concentrated. 

From the discussion of the nature of “will,” above, the 
reader must have become aware that “will” has to do with 



BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


227 


intelligence, ideas, interests, desires, Path No. 2, Fig. 29. While 
all willing is impluse acting thru ideas, not all impulse to action 
is willing thru ideas. Examination of Fig. 29 shows that Path 
No. 1 instinct, and No. 3, habit, lead to action just as well as 
do thoughts or ideas, Path No. 2. In other words, there are 
impulses to action not encompassed thru “willing” as it has 
been described above. What is more, these impulses of instinct 
and habit are in all probability the ones which most influence 
to action even in situations where thought is most active. “We 
human beings persistently deceive ourselves in the supposition 
that our mental life is almost wholly intellectual; that we 
thoughtfully establish our points of view, our religious, moral, 
political sentiments; that we weigh our attitudes toward our 
peers, our superiors, even toward our inferiors in the balance 
of rational thought. The fact is that it is impossible, under 
the best conditions, for reasoning to have very much direct 
influence upon these great fundamental strata of human dis¬ 
position. To be sure we use facts in all these processes; but 
how we use them depends upon conditions imbedded in the 
great substrata of human nature” [instincts, emotion, and other 
feelings of relationship]. The discussion of the relation of 
instinct and habit to intelligence, and the place of emotion, 
should make it possible for the reader intelligently to evaluate 
impulses to action. 

4. Monism; Dualism. The charts, Figs. 28 and 29, are 
true only as they represent major emphasis upon a given 
“state.” The life of an individual is dynamic, moving, not 
static. For this reason it is impossible to represent by means 
of a chart the real facts; for the same reason it is impossible 
to define any given characteristic so that it may always be 
recognized. Impression shades off into thought; thought 
shades off into action; action shades off into other impressions 
much as the dissolving scenes or “fade-outs” in a motion pic- 



228 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


ture. Prof. James states it thus : “Consciousness, as a process 
in time, offers the paradoxes which have been found in all con¬ 
tinuous change. There are no ‘states’ in such a thing, any 
more than there are facets in a circle, or places where an 
arrow ‘is’ when it flies.” 

Psychic accompaniment of neural changes in the brain runs 
in cycles, or rather in a spiral. This can be vizualized by tak¬ 
ing the page containing Fig. 29 and rolling it into a vertical 
cylinder such that the paths of the figure leading off the page 
to the right tend to connect with those leading in from the 
left. For example, an expression may find outlet into action 
thru Path No. 1, instinct, or thru Path No. 2, intelligence, or 
thru Path No. 3, habit. Movement or action so produced, in 
turn, produces other impressions—either a sensation, or feel¬ 
ing of relationships. Such feelings of relationships are charged, 
more or less, with emotion. 

From the discussion above in which the reader has been 
cautioned against considering mental life as made up of “states,” 
that this “setting up of stakes” is merely a device for purposes 
of analysis and classification, for purposes of study, he should 
be ready to understand why the author at times uses the an¬ 
alogies of dualism or opposites and at other times those^of 
monism or unity or oneness, two supposedly hostile philoso¬ 
phies. (Cf. Dualism, The New International Encyclopaedia 
for a brief statement; also Dewey’s Democracy and Education, 
especially Chapter XXV.) The accompanying charts, Figs. 
30 and 31, should make clear the grounds for justification as¬ 
sumed by the author. Why there should of necessity be 
considered any lack of contiguity and continuity (unity) in the 
conception of dualism and vice versa, philosophy has not been 
able to prove. Given permission to select the experience or 
interval under consideration, and there is no reason why this 
permission should not be granted for it is the only way we can 




BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


229 


study dynamic or moving things, one may with every propriety 
consider all opposites as having continuity and contiguity or 
oneness as charted, and in every case in which there is con¬ 
tinuity and contiguity he may, with equal propriety, take into 
consideration the opposites. To use Dr. Dewey’s own illus¬ 
tration for induction and deduction: it is as if one were to stand 
on the bank of a stream of running water; looking in one 
direction he gets one set of implications, namely, “water run¬ 
ning away”; looking in the other direction he gets an opposite 
set, namely, “water running toward”; withal there is continuity 
and contiguity, it is the same stream. We may speak of the 
river in terms of opposites, as, mouth and source; we may 
speak of it in terms of contiguity and continuity, as one and 
the same river. 

The balance, or mean, or harmony which the author urges 
frequently as an ideal toward which to work does not imply 
there can or must be a perfect balance at all times in all things 
irrespective of the interval or experience selected. Rather, 
it is a balance in the life of the individual or of the social 
group only for certain predetermined intervals or experiences 
selected for discussion. Such a balance is represented in Fig. 
30 by the diagonal. Fig. 31 represents what happens when a 
selected experience or interval is not free to develop into such 
idealism, but is conditioned at the period or interval under 
consideration thru such factors as natural development, eco¬ 
nomic or social necessity, or otherwise. While only instincts 
and intellect, manipulative skill and intellectual activity are 
charted here, it is possible to chart in a similar manner other 
opposites. For example, we might have charted empirical con¬ 
cretes and theoretic abstractions; or, Froebel’s (1) spontaneity 
and (2) instruction in conventional method of procedure; and, 
in turn, his (2) instruction in conventional method of procedure 
and (3) creative effort. In every case there are implications 



230 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


of extremes, yet with continuity and contiguity and opportu¬ 
nity for thinking in terms of balance or lack of balance. 

Let the student try to trace his own mental and physical 
life upon the charts, Figs. 28 and 29. He will find innumer¬ 
able situations he cannot classify to his entire satisfaction; this 
is due to the fact that these “states” or stages are in or near 



Direction of movement - 

-- Contiguity ; Continuity - 

Fig. 30. Rectangle of an experience ideally conditioned. 


what might be called the dissolving field or “fade-out” of his 
introspective motion picture. There will be many which are 
clear and he will find it profitable to classify such for illus¬ 
trative purposes. Since there are 11,000 millions of neurones 
or nerve paths in the human body the possibilities for variation 
and richness in the specific thought or appropriateness of action 
called forth by a given impression must be great; the general 
direction, however, is in every case that of one or another of 
the three paths of Fig. 29. 

5. Significance of Connections in the Nervous System 
of Man in Defining Certain Aims in Education. Aims in 
education have been variously given, and educational practice 
correspondingly modified at different periods of educational de¬ 
velopment. Of the variations which have come, probably none 
have had greater significance than those which have come thru 
















BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


231 


the changing emphasis placed upon the various connections 
diagrammed in Fig. 29. Since man is not all mind or all body, 
but one mind so inseparably connected with a body that life 
ceases at separation, the diagram is true, of course, only as it 
represents such emphasis. 



^ § 


ii 

I . 




Fig. 


31. Rectangle of an experience conditioned thru natun 
economic or social necessity, or otherwise. 


An examination of a number of current notions of education 
will serve to point out the significance of the statement just 
made. For example, we are wont to say “Knowledge is power/’ 
Such a notion of education is bound to result in emphasis upon 
intellect, connections between thought and thought, connection 
No. 3, Fig. 29, upon race experience, upon cramming or stor¬ 
age of facts, upon books, upon long rows of desks and bodily 
inactivity. Again, we are informed that “It is not knowledge 
that is power, but applied knowledge; not what is known, but 
what can be done with what is known.” This latter idea places 
emphasis upon connections No. 3 and No. 4, Fig. 29. Another 
educational philosopher tells us that “Education is what one 
has left after he has forgotten all he ever learned.” At first 
thought we are inclined to ridicule such a notion of education. 
However, there is truth in the statement. It is merely the 
placing of extreme emphasis upon habit, automatic connections, 









232 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


Path No. 3, connection No. 5, Fig. 29. The condition one finds 
himself in when called upon to explain some method of proced¬ 
ure or position of the hands in some operation which has been 
performed many times, is an excellent illustration of what this 
educator is trying to designate as education. One can perform 
the operation, or he can readily place his hands in position for 
the required operation, but he finds great difficulty in telling an¬ 
other how it is to be done. Intellect has ceased to function; 
habit or feeling has taken its place. That type of education 
which accomplishes this end Professor Judd calls “learning by 
direct interpretation,” 1 direct in that it does not involve intelli¬ 
gence of consciousness, or at least tends to eliminate these as 
quickly as possible in favor of learning thru feeling of relation¬ 
ships. Prof. James says, “An uneducated person is one who is 
nonplussed by all but the most habitual situation.” He is re¬ 
minding us that instinct and habit are not the only factors to be 
considered in the adequate meeting of environment, that in¬ 
telligence or ability to do selective or original thinking is of no 
less importance. He is calling attention to Path No. 2. Pro¬ 
fessor J. L. Meriam, 2 as his first principle of curriculum con¬ 
struction, considers education as assisting children to do better 
those things which children normally like to do. He is most 
concerned here with Path No. 1. 

All of the definitions or conceptions above place special em¬ 
phasis upon one connection or another; the following are so 
broad they may well cover any or all of our connections. 
“Education is the modification of conduct.” “Education, psy¬ 
chologically, is the process of transforming children from what 
they are into what they ought to become.” “The work of edu- 

Hudd, C. H., Genetic Psychology for Teachers, Appleton, 1903, pp. 
59 et. seq. 

2 Meriam, J. L., Child Life and the Curriculum, World Book Co., 
1920, pp. 137-170. 




BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


233 


cation is to make impressions, acts, and connections between 
them suitable not only in the sense of suiting the actual world 
but also in the higher sense of suiting the demands which are 
to transform the imperfect world that is into some better world 
of the future.” 1 In this latter definition by Thorndike, there 
is suggested an improvement over the idea of education as 
'‘adjustment to environment.” 

Educational theory and practice of today is tending more and 
more toward the recognition of the legitimacy of a variety of 
aims based upon the more common characteristics of individual 
and social differences in pupils. For example, schools are 
being budded and equipped for the especial training of boys 
and girls who, because of economic or other reasons, do not 
enter the traditional or general high school. These schools are 
stressing vocational information and vocational training. This 
is as it should be. It is well to remember, however, that such 
vocational training meets the need of a particular group and 
can no more lay claim to being possessed of the aim of education 
than can a college preparatory school. What is more, the aim 
of such a training may be such as to conflict with other equally 
legitimate educational aims so that time so spent is useless in 
so far as these other needs are concerned. 

The homely story of the blind men and the elephant well 
illustrates the attitude one is likely to assume with reference 
to the beliefs of others educationally, unless he studies dis¬ 
cerningly. The reader will recall that the blind man who 
happened to grasp the elephant’s ear concluded that elephants 
were like palm leaf fans; the one who touched the elephant’s 
side concluded that an elephant was like the side of a wall; 
the one who grasped the elephant’s tail thought elephants were 
like rope; while the one who happened to clasp his arms about 
the elephant’s leg was certain elephants were like tree trunks. 

1 Thorndike, E. L., Elements of Psychology, p. 113. 




234 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


Each was right in so far as he had informed himself of a part 
of the body; he was wrong in his hasty or impartial general¬ 
ization as to the likeness of the whole body. In education 
we shall do well to refrain from hasty generalizations that the 
whole body of educational need is like that with which we have 
informed ourselves and like that alone. 

6. Connections a Basis for Method. In general, a con¬ 
sideration of the connections in the nervous system of man 
justifies the following statements: (1) The cycle of develop¬ 
ment of an individual consists of a period characterized by 
instinctive or random movement; (2) out of these random 
movements develop consciousness and intelligence; (3) intelli¬ 
gence marks a hiatus or hold-up between instinctive prompt¬ 
ings and consequent motor reaction and as such will have no 
value until it takes discharge in the form of action. (4) Only 
as man, or the race, maintains a balance between intellect and 
instinct and habit is race progress best effected. Individuals 
may become specialists : some may become mind workers, others 
hand workers; that is, some may emphasize intellect, others 
habits controlled by feeling, but race progress demands the 
maintenance of a balance. (5) Individual welfare demands that 
this balance be maintained, certainly thru the elementary period 
of education or until the natural aptitudes of youth may have 
opportunity to manifest themselves. 

In general an education which emphasizes intellectual activity 
for any great length of time and neglects opportunity for appro¬ 
priate motor response thru application, is uneconomical, to 
say the least, for nothing is assuredly assimiliated until it 
issues in action of one kind or another. If the application is 
far removed in time, memory will fail. On the other hand, 
an education which is so direct in its connections between 
impression and reaction that it allows little time for thought 
or reflection, is ill advised in that it neglects to take into ac- 



BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


235 


count the fact that man meets new situations more effectively 
thru the workings of intellect than of instinct, and intelligence 
does not function or have a part in instinctive and automatic 
connections. The saying “It is hard to teach an old dog new 
tricks” is but another way of saying that unless the memory 
processes are kept open, progress is not possible. Memory is 
of mind, of intellect, not of feeling. 

7. Social, Economic, and Other Factors Influence Aims 
and Practices. Psychological considerations, such as those 
just mentioned, are not the only ones to be considered in de¬ 
termining educational aims and practices, of course. There 
are social and economic, ethical and other considerations 
equally as important. What is more, not a few of these latter 
considerations are conflicting in their aims with those of psy¬ 
chology. We know, for example, that early fixing of highly 
specialized habits in industrial pursuits does not produce a 
very high type of individual in many respects. We also know 
that very few pupils who are destined to perform such in¬ 
dustrial work can remain or do remain in schools thru that 
age which best fits the development of intelligence in connec¬ 
tion with their industrial work, Fig. 32. It becomes a question, 
then, of turning out a type somewhat better fitted for earning 
its bread and butter in industrial work requiring relatively 
little initiative or of letting the individual go without even do¬ 
ing this much for him. Psychology and ethics will tell us what 
ought to be our educational practice; social and economic needs 
will tell us what must be, until that time when our economic 
conditions are made to square with our ethics. 

If the discussions in the preceding chapters are found advo¬ 
cating higher types of educational need in that they set situa¬ 
tions which tend to develop initiative, it must not be concluded 
that there is lack of sympathy for attention to the needs of 
those who cannot pursue such a course because of economic 



236 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


need or otherwise. On the other hand, when the discussions 
lead to a justification of such a type of education as takes the 
Percent Percent 

retained Grades High dchool last 

/ Z 3 4 S 6 7 8 I X M TZ 



Fig. 32. Adapted from Dr. Ayer’s “Laggards in Our Schools,” p. 71. 


immature pupil and trains him so specifically for an indus¬ 
trial task requiring so little intelligence that he can never 
hope to rise much higher than a machine tender, it must 
not be inferred that this is other than doing the best for the 
pupil that unfavorable economic and social conditions permit. 

For example, boys are not sufficiently developed physically 
and mentally to justify the giving of vocational work of a 
serious nature much before sixteen years. This fact is evi¬ 
denced by the reluctance of employers to take on apprentices 
much younger than this. Of course, if they have a type of 
work where it is possible to exploit the boy’s labor they may 
take him on, but if it is a matter of teaching him a trade, they 


























BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


2 37 


do not want the boy of younger age. Psychologically, then, 
the high school age is the place for industrial training of a 
serious nature. Over against this fact we must place the fact 
that few boys who go into industry as journeymen remain thru 
the high school period. Raising the limit of the school age for 
compulsory school attendance with part-time work will aid; 
it does not solve the problem of urgent economic need in the 
home. 

Rightly considered, then, the problem educationally, becomes 
one of providing courses that permit pupils to accomplish all 
they are able to accomplish in the time available. Socially, it 
it also a problem of devising means thru an enlightened public 
conscience whereby the intellectually competent but economic¬ 
ally unfortunate may take higher forms instead of the lower 
forms of preparation. It is also a problem of providing funds 
so that adequate equipment and teaching staff may be made 
available for the different kinds of work needed. 

8. Summary. Connections in the nervous system of 
human beings provide a convenient basis for psychological 
study. There are connections between (1) impression and 
expression, unlearned, (2) between impression and thought, 
(3) between thought and thought, (4) between thought and 
action, or expression, (5) between impression and expression, 
learned. 

Connection No. 1 is designated the path of instinct; con¬ 
nections No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4 we designate as the path of 
intelligence; connection No. 5 is the path of habit. Each of 
these three paths of control for action are important in real 
life situations and must therefore be considered in the setting 
of situations for educational purposes. 

Impression is a term used to designate the psychological and 
physiological effect of any kind of a contact of a sense organ. If 
the impression is simple it is called a sensation; if complex, a 



238 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


feeling of relationships. For purposes of analysis and classifi¬ 
cation both sensation and feeling of relationships are to be con¬ 
sidered as beyond the realm of intelligence. Emotion is 
interpreted as the psychological counterpart or accompaniment 
of a certain class of feeling of relationships, those arising from 
bodily changes going on within the individual experiencing the 
emotion. 

Power to will, or perseverance, is to be considered as a neg¬ 
ative characteristic in that nature has provided for effective 
expression, once the impression is freed from inhibitions caused 
by conflict of thought such that one thought fails to get the 
center of attention to the exclusion of all others. It is a posi¬ 
tive characteristic to the extent that one strives to concentrate 
attention and interest upon the one idea which will bring the 
action about once it gets control of consciousness to the com¬ 
plete subordination or exclusion of conflicting ideas. “Train¬ 
ing the will” consists in training one to attend, to concentrate, 
to take interest in one idea to the exclusion of all competing 
ideas. For convenience in analysis, three types of will may be 
distinguished: (1) The weak or erratic will caused by lack of 
adequate intellectual control; (2) the common type wherein 
one does well when he has been taught just what to do and 
how to do it, a type controlled by what we have chosen to call 
select-associative thinking; (3) that type which is controlled 
by selective thinking wherein action is brought about in terms 
of sound judgment based upon effective reasoning from known 
facts. 

Since the life of an individual is dynamic or moving, classi¬ 
fications such as those made in Fig. 29 are true only as they 
represent major emphasis upon a given state. Such states are 
not real but assumed for purposes of analysis and classifica¬ 
tion. We stake off for study, as it were, a portion of a mov¬ 
ing thing. If we act quickly and the stakes are far enough 



BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


239 


apart but not too far, we get a satisfactory picture. However, 
it should be remembered that while we are studying that por¬ 
tion between our stakes, the portion is changing, moving on 
and on. For this reason, disputes are likely to arise unless we 
define a given situation with precision, unless we understand 
where our stakes are set and the precise time of taking the 
view. Impression flows into or finds outlet in action thru 
instinct, or thru intelligence, or thru habit. Action or move¬ 
ment so produced, in turn, produces further impressions. The 
complete cycle is impression, association, expression. 

Aims in education conflict, except those which are so general 
they need interpretation. Since many of these aims are equally 
important for purposes of individual and social welfare, it fol¬ 
lows that educational practices must vary. An examination 
of the connections in the nervous system of man teaches us 
that society and the race depend for successful maintenance 
of progress upon the development both of efficient forms of 
thinking and of action. This balance may be maintained for 
society and the race thru the utilization of rather highly special¬ 
ized forms of each type. Elementary education, however, will 
do well to maintain a balance between thought and action for 
purposes of giving the adolescent a proper basis in action for 
later specialization in thought, and vice versa, and for deter¬ 
mining aptitudes. Economic, social, and other needs of society 
and of the individual will effect educational aims and practices, 
frequently running counter to those set by psychology and 
ethics. A consideration of immediate economic and social needs 
may point to the wisdom of offering opportunity for early 
entrance into industry, even at the expense of development 
of industrial intelligence. It also points to the need of con¬ 
tinuation courses to supplement such lack. 

Reference Reading: 

Thorndike: Elements of Psychology, especially Chapters I, 
IX, X, XI. 




240 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


James: Psychology, Briefer Course . 

Woodworth: Psychology. 

Meyer, Max: The Fundamental Laws of Human Behavior. 

Thorndike: Principles of Teaching, Chapter XIII. 

James: Talks to Teachers , Chapters III-V. 

Charters: Methods of Teaching, Chapter I. 

Class Discussion: 

1. Discuss the need of motor responses. 

2. Differentiate the varieties of motor responses. 

3. State the advantages and limitations of verbal responses. 

4. Discuss advantages and limitations of expression thru the 
activities of the arts and industries. 

5. Define education so as to indicate the part to be played by 
the manual arts, if you can. 

6. James says, “An uneducated person is one who is nonplussed 
by all but the most habitual situations.” Is there no place, 
then, for the training of boys and girls as industrial auto¬ 
matons ? Discuss. 

7. Supt. Dyer says, “Education is what is left after all that has 
been learned is forgotten.” Discuss. 

8. “No reception without reaction, no impression without cor¬ 
relative expression.” “Motor consequences are what clinch 
it” (An impression). Can you find an argument in these 
statements for manual arts as a means of teaching other 
subjects as history, geography, etc.? 

9. Let the student enumerate and illustrate from his own expe¬ 
rience each of the five connections mentioned above. 

10. Let the student trace the physiological counterpart of each 
of the connections illustrated above, Fig. 28. 

11. Using the chart of Fig. 29, let the student enumerate and 
illustrate each of the three paths, as well as each of the five 
connections as they occur in the illustrations above. 

12. Give illustrations of the inadequate functioning of instinct; 
of intelligence; of habit. Point out how a better solution in 
each case might have been accomplished along some other 
path. 

13. Explain why it is not incorrect, even if inadvisable, to 
classify sensation and feeling of relationships as beyond the 
realm of intelligence rather than as cognitive, intellectual. 



BASIC PSYCHOLOGY 


241 


14. Let the student analyze what takes place in terms of charts 
Figs. 28 and 29 when he has experienced emotion of one 
kind or another. 

15. Analyze the happenings of the mind when one has exercised 
perseverance or will power. Classify in terms of the three 
types of will described above. 

16. Why is it sometimes difficult to classify a mental state? 
Cite a number of illustrations. 












































































- 

. : t ' ;r 

■ II ' -1 • g 














APPENDIX I 

Special Method Procedure 

1. Special Method Aims. The work of the preceding 
chapters might well be classed under the heading of general 
method. An attempt was made to connect general principles 
of educational psychology with the special problems of teach¬ 
ing the manual and industrial arts. Before the student is 
thrust into actual teaching conditions, such as obtain in prac- 

PROGRAM CARD 
for 

OBSERVATION OF MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
TEACHING 

(Fill out in triplicate) _ Student’s name. 






Day— 

Hour- 

—Date 

Subject 

School 

Grade 

Teacher 

M 

T 

W 

T 

F 


(Reverse side of card.) 


Instructions.—(1) Each student will elect a subject for observation 
teaching method according to his interests or his sub¬ 
ject of specialization. 

(2) He will examine the day-hour program of the 
manual arts work of Elementary or of University High 
School, or of other schools available for observational 
work, and make out a trial program. 

(3) When this trial program has been approved by the 
instructor of Teaching Manual and Industrial Arts and 
the supervisor of practice teaching or the supervisor 
of other schools to be visited, a final program in tripli¬ 
cate is to be made out—one for the instructor, one for 
the supervisor, and one for student. 

Fig. 33. Program Card. 

tice teaching, it seems advisable to afford opportunity for the 
making of more specific connections. Special method lessons 
herewith seek to suggest a method of attack. Each lesson 


243 













244 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


involves two kinds of experience—one, individual planning of 
the teaching elements of given type lessons together with 
presentation and explanation of the same by some member 
of the class followed by class discussion of teaching methods 
used; two, observational work of expert teaching in manual 
arts followed by a carefully prepared report. The aim in 
this work is not so much one of study of organization of 
subject-matter and administration as of attention to the art 
or practice of teaching as tested by the principles discussed in 
the preceding chapters. 

2. Directions for Observation. (1) Secure from the 
instructor of Teaching Manual and Industrial Arts four blank 
forms, Program Cards, Fig. 33. 

(2) Using one of these cards as a trial card make out a 
trial program or schedule of proposed observational work 
to cover at least fourteen observational periods. Teaching 
schedules for Elementary and High School will be found 
posted in places designated by the instructor of Teaching 
Manual and Industrial Arts. 

Make a selection of but one subject, as expressional hand¬ 
work, technical handwork, mechanical drawing, etc., and 
confine observations to a detailed study of the teaching of some 
one person. Observation of the work of other instructors is 
advised, as arrangements can be made, but mainly for the 
purpose of assisting in a proper evaluation of the work of 
the teacher whose work has been elected for study. 

(3) Submit the trial program for approval to the in¬ 
structor in Teaching Manual and Industrial Arts and the 
supervisor of Practice Teaching. 

(4) Upon approval, make out program in triplicate and 
provide one for instructor, one for supervisor, and one for 
self. 

(5) Factors to be considered in making observations are 




SPECIAL METHOD PROCEDURE 


245 


fully discussed in the chapters preceding. The student, while 
he may and should make note of any number or of all of 
these factors in any one lesson observed, will do well to pay 
special attention to some one factor at each lesson observed. 
For example, the first observation period may be set aside 
for especial attention to the teacher’s outline of manual arts 
work, and the aim of the work as a whole. The second period 
may be devoted to those factors discussed in Chapter II, the 
next to those of Chapter III, etc., etc. 

Each lesson should be carefully written up and these notes 
used in the writing of a final report. The final report should 
show that the student has learned to think of his special 
problem in terms of educational principles—in terms of analy¬ 
sis and reason as well as in terms of mere practical expe¬ 
diency. Care should be taken to avoid hasty generalizations. 
For example, a teacher may have planned to devote several 
periods to emphasis upon skill as opposed to initiative. Before 
such a teacher is condemned, it will be well to inquire of him 
as to his plans, in his general scheme of manual or industrial 
arts instruction, for the development of initiative. 

3. Type Lessons. The aim in the type lessons experience 
is to accustom the pupil-teacher to the sensation of stand¬ 
ing before a class and presenting a lesson which he and his 
fellows have carefully prepared in outline form beforehand, 
and for which he on his appointed day has also prepared his 
materials and tools. Where classes are not too large and 
students have not developed too great self-consciousness with 
loss of imagination, it is possible to reproduce classroom con¬ 
ditions, with the exception of those of discipline, to advantage. 
Where these conditions do not obtain, it is necessary to have 
the one demonstrating take time to explain the conditions 
which obtain in the problem being presented, and the means 
used to meet the situation. While this latter experience may 



246 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


be less embarrassing to both demonstrating teacher and fel¬ 
lows, it falls short of emphasizing as vitally as it might the 
points to be brought out. It is one thing, for example, to 
explain how an illustrative lesson in the story of the Three 
Bears is to be given, and another thing to actually teach the 
class, even tho the class be one’s fellows. 

In elementary handwork the class may well add to demon¬ 
stration the actual carrying out of instruction in work. In 
technical shopwork such type lessons will probably have to 
end with the demonstration. 

I. Topic: Type Lesson 1 

Special method—Type lesson. Expressional or illustrative 
handwork. Paper cutting and poster making. Stories, 
Grade I. 

II. Required Reading: 

Dobbs: Primary Handwork, Chapters I-IV. 

Zeitz: Outlines. Appendix II herewith. 

Dobbs: Illustrative Handwork, pp. 38-52. 

III. Suggested Reading: 

Other books on Elementary handwork. Cf. library finding 
lists. 

IV. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form given in Chapter V, Dobbs: 
Illustrative Handwork, develop in detail an expressional 
lesson in paper cutting and poster making illustrative of 
some incident connected with the story of the Gingerbread 
Man. 

2. Student demonstration or teaching assigned to.. 

who will make all preparations beforehand in the way of 
materials and tools in consultation with the instructor. 

3. Begin observational work. 

I Topic: Type Lesson II 

Type lesson—Expressional or illustrative handwork. 

Sand table chart. Grade II. 

Stevenson: Child's Garden of Verses, The Swing. 
II. Required Reading: 

Zeitz: Outlines, Appendix II. 

Dobbs: Primary Handwork, Chapter VII. 

Stevenson: Child's Garden of Verses, The Swing. 

Dobbs: Illustrative Handwork, pp. 57-74. 





SPECIAL METHOD PROCEDURE 


247 


III. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter V, Dobbs: Illustrative 
Handwork, develop in detail an illustrative lesson on the 
subject, The Swing, from Stevenson’s Child's Garden of 
Verses, as you would have it worked out upon the sand 
table in Grade II. 

2 . Student demonstration or teaching assigned to.. 

who will make all necessary preparations beforehand in 
the way of materials and tools in consultation with the 
instructor. 

I Topic: Type Lesson III 

Type lesson—Technical handwork. Paper and cardboard con¬ 
struction, Grade I. Booklets (loose leaf), braid, 
cord. 

II. Required Reading: 

Zeitz : Outlines, Appendix II. 

Buxton and Curran: Paper and Cardboard Construction, p. 
138. 

III. Suggested Reading: 

Other books on elementary handwork. Cf. finding lists in 
the library. 

IV. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter XII, herewith, develop 
in detail a technical handwork lesson on Booklet Making 
for Grade I. 

2. Student demonstration or teaching assigned to.. 

who will make all necessary preparation beforehand in the 
way of materials and tools in consultation with the in¬ 
instructor. 

3. Continue observational work. 

I Topic* Type Lesson IV 

Type lesson—Technical handwork. Raffia, Grade II, Rugs for 
doll house. 

II. Required Reading: 

Zeitz: Outlines, Appendix II. 

Dobbs: Primary Handwork, pp. 40-45. 

III. Suggested Reading: 

Other books on elementary handwork. Cf. finding lists in 
the library. 

IV. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter XII, develop in de¬ 
tail a technical handwork lesson on Rug Weaving for doll 
house for Grade II. 





248 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


2. Student demonstration or teaching assigned to.., 

who will make all necessary preparations beforehand in 
the way of materials and tools in consultation with the 
instructor. 

3. Continue the observational work. 


I Topic: Type Lesson V 

Type lesson—Technical manual arts. Mechanical drawing. 

Grade VII. 

II. Required Reading: 

Griffith: Projects for Beginning Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, pp. 5, 6, 7 and plate 50. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses in Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, p. 91, Lesson 1, Grade VII. 

III. Suggested Reading: 

Other books on mechanical drawing. Cf. finding lists in the 
library. 

IV. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter XII herewith, develop 
in detail a technical drawing lesson for Grade VII. 

2. Student demonstration or teaching assigned to.. 

who will make all necessary preparations beforehand in the 
way of materials and tools in consultation with the in¬ 
structor. 

3. Continue observational work. 


I. Topic: Type Lesson VI 

Type lesson—Technical manual arts, Mechanical Drawing. 

Grade VII continued. 

II. Required Reading: 

Griffith: Projects for Beginning Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, pp. 5, 6, 9 and plate 1. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses in Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, p. 91, Lesson 2, Grade VII. 

III. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter XII herewith, develop 
in detail a technical drawing lesson based upon the reading 
assigned above. 

2. Student demonstration or teaching assigned to. 

who will make all necessary preparations beforehand in the 
way of materials and tools in consultation with the in¬ 
structor. 

3. Continue observational work. 







SPECIAL METHOD PROCEDURE 


249 


I Topic: Type Lesson VII 

Type lesson—Technical manual arts. Woodwork. Grade VII. 

II. Required Reading: 

Griffith: Projects for Beginning Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, pp. 5, 6, 9 and plate 1. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses in Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, p. 98. Lesson 13. 

III. Suggested Reading: 

Other books on mechanical drawing. Cf. finding lists in the 
library. 

IV. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter XII herewith, develop 
in detail a lesson in technical woodwork based upon the 
reading assigned above. 

2 . Student demonstration or teaching assigned to. 

who will make all necessary preparations beforehand in the 
way of materials and tools in consultation with the in¬ 
structor. 

3 . Continue observational work. 


I. Topic: Type Lesson VIII 

Type lesson—Technical manual arts. Woodwork continued. 
Grade VII. 

II. Required Reading: 

Griffith: Projects for Beginning Woodwork and Mechanical 
Drawing, pp. 5, 8, 22 and plates 2-4. 

Griffith: Correlated Courses in Woodwork and Mechamcal 
Drawing, p. 98, Lesson 14. 

III. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter XII herewith, develop 
in detail a lesson in technical woodwork based upon the 
reading assigned above. 

2. Student demonstration or teaching assigned to.. 

who will make all necessary preparations beforehand in the 
way of materials and tools in consultation with the in¬ 
structor. 

3. Continue observational work. 


I. Topic: Type Lesson IX 

Type lesson—Technical manual arts. Metalwork. Grade X. 

II. Required Reading: 

Hooper and Shirley: Handcraft in Wood and Metal, pp. 66, 
67, Steel scriber. Forging only. 

III. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter XII, develop in de- 






250 TEACHING MANUAL AND IN DUSTRIAL ARTS 


tail a lesson in technical metalwork based upon the read¬ 
ing assigned above. 

2. Student demonstration or teaching assigned to.. 

who will make all necessary preparations beforehand in the 
way of materials and tools in consultation with the in¬ 
structor. 

3 . Continue observational work. 

I. Topic: Type Lesson X 

Type lesson—Technical manual arts. Metalwork continued. 

Grade X. 

II. Required Reading: 

Hooper and Shirley: Handcraft in Wood and Metal, pp. 66, 
67, Steel scriber continued. Cleaning up, hardening, tem¬ 
pering. 

III. Assignment: 

1. Making use of the form in Chapter XII, develop in de¬ 
tail a lesson in technical metalwork based upon the read¬ 
ing assigned above. 

2. Student demonstration or teaching assigned to.. 

who will make all necessary preparations beforehand in the 
way of materials and tools in consultation with the in¬ 
structor. 

3 . Continue observational work. 

In a similar manner other lessons may be developed as 
desired. In industrial arts, if the work is organized for a 
rather distinct differentiation between instruction and produc¬ 
tion, as is the case of the work of the Lakeside Press School, 
Figs. 19 and 20, and the General Electric Co., Figs. 21 and 22, 
all those type lessons dealing with instructional problems may 
be made to take the form used in technical manual arts. The 
chief consideration here, as in technical manual arts, is to 
see that systematic and orderly introduction of instruction in 
new subject-matter and methods is made possible. In type 
lessons in industrial arts for production, instruction will be 
secondary; the emphasis being placed upon the development 
of efficiency in the work in hand, which work presumably is 
based upon instruction already given in the school shop. 






APPENDIX II 

Type Outlines 


The type outlines which follow are intended to provide 
readily accessible reference material for grades I through VI 
out of which the student may build type lessons. In addi¬ 
tion to these outlines the student will do well to make himself 
familiar with the material contained in standard texts having 
to do with subject-matter under consideration. A list of texts 
containing such reference material may be found by con¬ 
sulting library finding lists. 

The outlines which follow are arranged in an order pre¬ 
supposing an organization of teaching materials in manual 
'arts for general educational purposes as follows: 


Grades I-VI. 


J 


a. Expressional 


Central and illustrative 
handwork. 


lb. Technical handwork [ 

f Technical shop and drafting work, 
a. Mechanical drawing. 

Grades VII-IX ^ b. Woodwork. 

I c. Metalwork. 

I d. Electrical work, etc. 


f Carpentry or 

Grades X-XI...j Pattern making 
[ Machine work, 


f Organized for instruction. 
1 Production secondary. 

°f . 1 Pupil chooses one subject, 

e c., et . Emphasis on technic, form. 


f Carpentry 

Crade XII.1 Pattern making 

[ Machine work, etc., etc. 


Organized for production. 
Instruction secondary. 
Pupil follows choice made 
in Grade XI. 

Emphasis on skill. 
Part-time work if possible. 


Justification of the above form of organization of teaching 
materials will be found in the author’s Organization and Ad¬ 
ministration of Manual Arts, a companion text in preparation. 
Cf. Fig. 14. 


251 





252 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


TYPE OUTLINE—EXPRESSIONAL HANDWORK 
PICTURE MAKING AND ILLUSTRATED BOOKLETS 
OBJECTS AND SCENES IN CRAYON, PAINT AND FREE 

CUTTING 

Prepared by Juliaetta Zeitz 
For University of Missouri Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. 7. 



Grade I. 

Grade II. 

Grade III. | Grade IV. 

Home 

Washboard 

Tub 

Broom 

Teakettle 

Shoes 

Umbrella 

House 

Furniture 

chairs 

tables 

Igloo 

Wigwam 
Tropical Hut 

Foreign homes 
Foreign people 
Japanese 
temples 

Dutch 
windmills 
Indian bow 
and arrow 

Homes and 
Costumes of 
India 
Palestine 
Philippines 
Modes of 
travel 

| Occupations 

Spade 

Horseshoe 

Anvil 

Ax 

Hammer 

Street car 

Hoe 

Rake 

Boats 

Ice-wagon 

Postman 

Mill-wheel 

Plow 

Sack of flour 
Train 

Bucket of coal 
Lighthouse 

Fire engine 

Farm products 
Manufactures 
Minerals 

Each group 
classified 
as to 
home 
foreign 

Nature 

Trees 

Leaves 

Snowflakes 

Animals 

rabbits 

cats 

bears 

elephants 

camels 

Stars 

Moon 

Trees 

F ruit 

Vegetables 

Animals 

Birds 

Aquarium 

tadpoles 

frogs 

crayfish 

fish 

Birds 

Animals of 
forest 
farmyard 

Animals 

Trees 

Flowers 

Each group 
classified 
as to 
home 
foreign 

Stories 

Mother Goose 
Little Red 

Hen 

The Three 

Pigs 

Gingerbread 

Man 

Hiawatha 

The Pied 

Piper 

Little Black 

Sambo 

The Cat Who 
Forgot How 
to Talk 

Jack and the 
Bean Stalk 
Sleeping Beauty 
Hiawatha 

Story of the 
Pilgrims 

Story of 
Columbus 

The First 
Thanks¬ 
giving 

Child’s 

Garden of 
Verses 

Town of 
Musicians 
Eyes and 
No-eyes 

Greek Myths 
Old Testament 
Stories 
History 

Stories 

Nature 

Stories 

King Arthur 
and His 
Knights 

Hero Stories 
Birds and their 
Nestlings 
Phyllis Stories 
-Nature 
Aladdin 

Alibaba and 
the Forty 
Thieves 

Greek and 
Norse Myths 



















TYPE OUTLINES 


253 


EXPRESSIONAL HAND¬ 
WORK-CONTINUED 

POSTER MAKING AND ILLUSTRATED BOOKLETS 


; 

Grade V. j 

Grade VI. 

i 

Outline maps of Missouri 

Booklets 


Colored to show 

Our World’s Story 

i 

corn regions 

Change of Seasons—causes 

* 

coal regions • 

Revolution and Rotation of 


fruit regions 

the Earth 


mineral regions 

Physical Features of North 

j? 

live stock regions 

America 

o. 

CJ 

vegetable regions 

Posters relating to 

u 

to 

forests 

travel in America 

o 

Animals of North America 

travel in foreign lands 

o 


customs, houses, people, 
and costumes of foreign 
lands 

chart showing the standard 
time areas 
evolution of travel 
occupations 

to 

.S 

•3 

Tanglewood Tales 

Christmas Carol 

scenes 

scenes 

characters 

characters 

CS 

<u 

Hawthorne’s Life-Story 

Cricket on the Hearth 

P4 

Captains of Industry 

scenes 

characters 

V 

Posters 

Illustrations for “Travel” 

to 

Ci 

Paul Revere’s Ride 

by Stevenson 

3 

Horatius at the Bridge 

Rewrite and illustrate stories 

to 

G 

Letters 

Courtship of Miles Standish 

rt 

t-1 

Bills 

Letters 

Advertisements 


Sketches to illustrate 

The world in Columbus’ time 


stories of the Romans 

Life of Columbus 

>» 

stories of the Greeks 

The voyage to America 

o 

stories of the Germans 

America as he found it 

1 n 

stories of the English 

Colonial homes and customs 

s 

discovery of America 

Indians 

story of the Pilgrims 

Settlements made by 


colonial days 
modern davs 

European nations 















254 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


EXPRESSIONAL HAND¬ 
WORK-CONTINUED 

POSTER MAKING AND ILLUSTRATED BOOKLETS 



Grade V. 

| Grade VI. 


Posters 

Posters and charts showing 


how we are fed 

helpful birds and how to 

o 

how we are clothed 

keep them 

3 

how we are sheltered 

harmful insects and how 

rt 

Leaves 

to get rid of them 

£ 

Helpful birds 

cotton from seed to cloth 


Useful plants 

wheat, corn, flax, etc. 


Harmful insects and worms 

our minerals and their uses 



trees and their leaves 



Designs for 


Designs for 

booklets 


book covers 

rooms 


wall paper 

wall paper 


rugs 

houses 

4 -» 

u 

leather work 

rugs 

< 

costumes 

clothes 


hats 

cross stitch embroidery- 

Flower posters 

Plant posters 


calendars 

Weed posters 


gift cards 

Perspective (one point) 

(D 

What to do in case of fire 

How a sand filter works 

a 

<u 

How to carry a gun 

Street cleaning methods 

*3> 

How to make a stretcher 

How tuberculosis is spread 

hr-t 

What to do in case of drowning 

A model dairy 


How to stop bleeding 

Places where germs breed 


Harmful work of flies 


u 

V» 

Posters illustrating 

Figures illustrating fractions 

a 

use of fractions 

Figures illustrating decimals 

■4-» 

measures 

Measures 

‘Cl 

money 

The farm and its products 

< 

store problems 

Checks and bills 












TYPE OUTLINES 


255 


SPECIAL DAY PROJECTS 

PICTURE-MAKING AND CONSTRUCTION—GRADES I to VI. 
Columbus Day—Ships, animals, Indians, wigwams, bow, arrow. 
Hallowe’en — Ghosts, pumpkins, apples, corn, jack-o’-lanterns, 
witches, bats, cats. 

Thanksgiving—Trees, turkeys, log huts, animals, cradles, corn, 
wigwam, Indians, pilgrims. 

Christmas—Trees, candles, stars, stocking, games, sleds, Santa 
Claus. 

Lincoln’s Day—Log cabin, ax, wooden shovel, pig. 

Valentine’s Day—Valentines, envelopes. 

Washington’s Birthday—Cherries, hatchets, colts, hats (three cor¬ 
ners), coach, sword, raft. 

Longfellow’s Day—Home and life, illustrations for “Children’s 
Hour”, “Miles Standish”, and other poems. 

Arbor Day—Trees, spades, picks, sprinkler. 

Circus Day—Animals, wagons, clowns, chariot, balloons. 

May Day—Baskets, flowers, May-pole, queen. 

St. Patrick’s Day—Shamrocks, snakes, lizards. 

Decoration Day—Flags, guns, caps, cannon. 

Easter—Rabbits, chickens, eggs, baskets, flowers. 

EXPRESSIONAL HANDWORK—CONTINUED 
SANDTABLE AND CONSTRUCTION 



Grade I. 

Grade II. 

| Grade III. 


Indian life 

Field and Pasture 

Dopp Series 


Columbus Day 

White Cloud 

Cave Dwellers 


Thanksgiving 

Jose the Cuban 

Tree Dwellers 


Christmas 

Boy 

Robinson Crusoe 


Lincoln Day 

Garden of Verses 

The Line of Golden 


Washington Day 

The Lighthouse 

Light 

<D 

Eskimo home 

The Swing 

Mother Ocean’s 

rt 

Three little pigs 

The Story of Ab 

Children 

*5 

An apple orchard 

Eyes and No-eyes 

The lumber camp 

G 

rt 

Playgrounds 

St. Patrick’s Day 

St. Valentine’s Day 

A cattle ranch 

in 

Local activities 
Little Red Hen 
Billy Goat Gruff 

Home life in other 
lands 

Japan 

China 




Holland 











256 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


EXPRESSIONAL HANDWORK—CONTINUED 
SANDTABLE AND CONSTRUCTION 



Grade I. 

Grade II. 

Grade III. 

<D 
c n 

3 

Play houses 

Homes of story 

Own home as doll 

O 

aj 

Own home 

book friends 

house 


Homes of story 

Own homes and 

Homes of other 

C « 
rt « 

book friends 

homes of other 

children 

« o 

Three Bears 

children 

Japanese 


Little Jack 

White Cloud 

Eskimo 

<u 

Horner 

Red Riding Hood 

Bedouin 

a 

o 

The Three Little 

Swiss Children 


X 

Pigs 

The Dutch Twins 



What is in 

Sources of materi- 

Co-operative work 


grocery store 

als in stores 

postoffice 


dry goods store 

Do they come from 

tire department 

<D 

butcher shop 

near home? 

How we lived be¬ 


blacksmith shop 

Do they come from 

fore the stores 

[3 

*c 

CO 

drug store 

foreign lands? 

came 

Sources of food and 
clothing 

Sanitation of store 

M 

| 


and street 


Grade IV. 

Grade V. 

Grade VL 


Seven Little Sisters 

Lewis and Clark 

Home life in for¬ 


Alibaba and the 

Expedition 

eign lands 


Forty Thieves 
How Cedric Became 

Daniel Boone 

Holland 


Colonial history 

Japan 


a Knight 

tales 

Animal life in oth¬ 

* 

King Arthur and 

Relief maps 

er lands; in our 

JU 

His Knights 

Paul Revere’s Ride 

own country 

CJ 

The Children’s Cru¬ 

Panama Canal 

Plant life of the 

*0 

sade 

The Dog of Flan¬ 

continents 

c 

cS 

Coal mine 

ders 

Relief maps 

in 

African jungle 
Fishing industries 

Robinson Crusoe 

Transportation 

Industries 

Irrigation 

Sand filter 

T ravel—Stevenson 
The King of the 
Golden River 

























TYPE OUTLINES 


257 


EXPRESSIONAL HANDWORK—CONTINUED 
SANDTABLE AND CONSTRUCTION 



Grade IV. 

Grade V. 

Grade VI. 

e 

Home Life and House 
Problems 

Puritan home 

King Arthur’s cas¬ 
tle 

Seven Little Sisters 
Primitive utensils 
Primitive weapons 

Colonial home 
Colonial utensils 
Home of Daniel 
Boone 

Home of Wash¬ 
ington 

Home of Lincoln 

Explorers 

Homes in Palestine 
Skyscrapers 
European homes 
European vehicles 
Dolls in foreign 
costumes 

| Constructio 

Industrial Life 

Local industries 
Transportation 
Weights and meas¬ 
ures 

Advertisements 
Arrangement of 
stores 

Care of food 

l 

Larger industries 
shoe factory 
broom factory 
Sources of their 
material 

Useful trees (lum¬ 
ber; 

Ornamental trees 
Sanitation of store 
and factory 
Protection of 
workers against 
fire and accident 
Panama Canal and 
locks 

Mine and mine ma¬ 
chinery 

Evolution of indus¬ 
tries 

transportation 

light 

heat 

measure 

time 

Animals that fur¬ 
nish clothing 

Animals that fur¬ 
nish food 

Plants that furnish 
clothing 

Plants that furnish 
food 

Manufacture of 
clothing 





















258 TEACHING MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 


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TECHNICAL PROJECTS—CONTINUED 


TYPE OUTLINES 


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No type outlines are given for technical manual or industrial arts subject matter 
above grade VI. Space available is limited, in the first place, and, in the second, 
the student needs only go to the library and he will find suitable material in the 
form of texts and bulletins for all the trades and industries usually taught. 

































































t 











Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process, 
, Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: April 2011 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATION 

111 Thomson Park Drive 
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